C H R I S , V I V I A N , V I C K Y , M A T T , M O A Z

 

                       

 

BUSINESS & THE ECONOMY

      The economy in the 1960s was definitely a prosperous one more the most part. According to Bowling Beatniks and Bell-Bottoms, the GNP of the United States increased by 250 percent since the end of World War II and then grew another 36 percent in the first half of the 1960s. Citizens also experienced higher wages and access to easier credit, which allowed them to own more things than ever before. This was due to affluence in the American job market involving growing industries such as housing and computers. More people were now able to live in their own home and have their own car and purchase new technologies like refrigerators, radios, and machine washers for their clothes.

 

      Big businesses virtually controlled the domestic economy during the 60's. Large companies like General Motors and Ford had some of the largest gross incomes in the country. This large amount of money also allowed these large companies to dominate globally. Food companies like Campbell's Soup and Heinz sold their products successfully across the world and IBM was an influential firm in every country they were located in. 

 

       The federal government was also taking a more active role in the economy during the 60s. The government supported the economy by spending billions of dollars in military equipment, which was at its peak during the Vietnam War, supporting scientific research, creating infrastructure, and aiding the race to space against the Soviet Union. They also expanded their social-security and public benefits by increasing their spending on social welfare going from from $52.3 billion in 1960 to $113.6 billion in 1968.
    

     Unfortunately, harsh racism was still a part of everyday life at this time. Corporations and businesses often discriminated against people based on their race and gender, which made it difficult for African Americans and women to find well paying jobs. This was later changed as the civil rights movement and the women's movement gained momentum in the 60s.

     As the saying goes, what goes up must come down, and this was very much the case of the economy at the end of the 1960s. There was a large amount of competition emerging from Japan and Europe, which provided difficult challenges for business in America and across the globe. Secondly, the price of supporting the war in Vietnam was increasing drastically and the American economy was experiencing inflation. All these factors were putting a strain on the country and overall caused the economy's prosperity and confidence to decline.

  

     Overall, the 60s was a great time for the American economy as the majority of the population experienced more luxurious lifestyles and were able to find jobs with ease. The combination of these factors led to a general increase in the motivation and progression of Americans everywhere.

 

 

   

Above: President Lyndon Johnson and his wife visit a very poor 

region of America, in Appalachia. This was done in affiliation with his War on Poverty program, a prefect example of the governments increase spending on welfare support. 

 

EDUCATION

     *FACT: The number of 17-year-olds to graduate from high school increased to 77% in the years 1968-1969, compared to 59% from 1949-1950.

     African Americans were often subject to systematic racism during educational reform. The law implemented by the southern states prevented African American children from accessing the same schools as white children. All-black schools were created for black students, and many of these schools possessed inferior facilities, supplies, and course selections in comparison to schools for white children. Even though school segregation was declared illegal by the Supreme Court case of Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954, racism in education was never completely eradicated until later years. Many schools were reluctant to become integrated, and only succumbed after being threatened by financial cuts imbued the state. Segregation at higher levels of education was also not unheard of. At the University of Mississippi, James Meredith was the first African American to be accepted to the school. Governor Ross Barnett made attempts to prevent Meredith from entering the school despite the board of trustee’s support. On the other hand, schools in the north and other Ivy League schools were passionate about recruiting new African American students. Princeton increased their enrollment of black students by 200% from 1960 to 1968.

     The lack of qualified teachers was an immense source of panic during the Sixties.   Due to the influx of students attending high school and seeking out higher education in the form of universities, classroom space and skilled staff were in dire need.  Baby boomers (individuals born in post-World War II) were approaching adolescence and were flooding secondary schools. The use of portable classrooms came into use in an attempt to provide a temporary learning environment for students. In 1960, the United States was the first nation in the world to have more college students than farmers – a number which had tripled by 1969.  Major research colleges were now the focal points of knowledge for the purpose of government and business.  There was an almost unrealistic demand for highly-skilled workers as the need for unskilled workers rapidly declined. In response, the military created programs for young men in fields of basic elementary reading and math courses. Individuals from all backgrounds scrambled for a chance at education. The federal government’s expanding role in public education began with the National Defense Education Act of 1958 which intended to enhance the education of American students in fields such as science, mathematics, engineering, and foreign languages. After President Kennedy’s election, massive amounts of federal funds were injected into the public education system. However, many students during this period had cynical views of the public institutions, eventually leading into the bombardment of student-lead protests. A new radical activist movement called the New-Left was created by middle-class, nontraditional students whose protests often covered controversial issues such as the Vietnam War and racial discrimination. An example of a student group is the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) which had the purpose of “shaking America to its roots”.

     In this decade, a “Great Debate” was also addressed: should the inherent purpose of education be for increased intellectual training or for bettering social adjustment? The public generally agreed that education should focus on critical thinking, good citizenship, social fitness, and skills in creativity. A certain concern was the Soviet education system, which was viewed by some to supersede the American education system. In spite of the controversy, education in the sixties was overwhelmed by the sheer amount of students pouring into the curriculum, the lack of qualified teachers and classrooms, and a barrage of student protests.

 

Above: The University of Michigan: Students for a Democratic Society sponsor a march through

the streets of Ann Arbor for a protest against the Vietnam War.

 

FASHION

     The 1960’s were an extremely diverse decade when it came down to fashion. The spectrum ranged from Conservative Jacqueline Kennedy dress suits, to thigh-high miniskirts, and ripped jeans. This matched the different aspects of the development of the decade for example all of the other innovations such as the enormous American-made cares, glass box window buildings, and luxurious furniture. The other side was that of pink plastic chairs, small imported cars, and Las Vegas style buildings, indicating liveliness, with bright lights, dazzle and glamour.

 

     Seeing as the 1960’s were overall a decade of prosperity, which was due to the fact that after America’s victory in World War II many believed that they were in e sense superior to other nations and cultures. This concept even manifested itself out through fashion. Now in the 60’s with wartime production monitored and regulated, financial stability increased drastically, and thus motivated countless Americans to purchase and consume more. This concept is known as materialism. To enjoy this wealth to its fullest society as a whole began spending more than ever before. The quality and quantity of material possession became a means of measuring and boasting wealth, as well as a symbol of overall success.

           

     Another factor that made the 1960’s such a distinct decade of fashion is that of the youth influence. Seeing as after WWII, the baby boom occurred, then by the 1960’s many of the people were now in their teenage years. Furthermore, during this time period of increased prosperity, parents allowed their children allowances and to work jobs at younger ages. Although the parents of these children knew how to spend wisely, as they did overcome The Depression, the children were never in the habit of economizing. This led to the development of unique styles and tastes regarding every aspect of living from this baby-boomer generation. 

 

     The 1960’s clothes were characterized by a distinct sense of freedom and liberation from the preceding decades, as not only was the clothing more exhilarating to the eye, but it became more radical in a sense as well. In the early 1960’s much of the fashion was influenced by President John F. Kennedy’s admired wife Jacqueline Kennedy that illustrated class and elegance through her simple yet dressy suits. Then in 1964, British designer Mary Quant became well known in the U.S. The trend that came with this designer was the London “mod” look. This trend was defined by the youth generation, hence it was characterized by mini-skirts, dark eye makeup, wild colors/bows/ties/, blouses, stockings, and brightly colored shift dresses. This trend appealed to the youth across the nation because everyone had access to it, as it was not particularly expensive and evolved from one season to the next. Moreover, men in the 60’s focused on their hairstyles, but also increased awareness of what one was wearing became a trend in men as well. The men abandoned the grey suit that they always wore and went for different hairstyles, colors, and styles. In fact, they went to professional salons with women instead of the typical barbershop, thus many men had longer hair during this time period.

 

            The mod look also allowed particular freedom of expression or women. This is exactly why the 1960’s were a decade that eased into the decades with less and fewer restrictions as to the clothing women could wear. For example, panty hose eliminated garter belts and many wore lose shirt with no other shirt under. This was also the decade where pants were entirely revolutionized and from this decade stemmed high-fashion outfits that revolved around pants. Although resistance to allow women to dress this freely existed, women were no longer required or expected to wear skirts in public.

 

     Mostly, the fashion of the 60’s was a reflection of the overall atmosphere of he decade. Thus this decade, in the beginning composed of symbols of optimism, hence bright colors, wild patterns, and fewer restrictions. But as the decade came to an end, and the optimism transformed to pessimism, the fashion transformed alongside with it, and the styles began being less outrageous and the freedom began to be questioned. 

 

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     Above is a slideshow of the clothing and accessories worn in the 1960's. These included the following: simple dresses, boots, large earrings, intricate necklines, short hems, and bold colors/prints. 

 

FILM & THEATHER

     By 1960, it had become very expensive to put on a Broadway production so producers started to make musicals and works that had already been proven. Some musical of the time were Oliver, Funny Girl, and Hair. For the first time ever in 1966, more were actors for plays hired out of New York than in New York.

     Musicals that were a hit on Broadway quickly turned into motion pictures. One of these movies was the Sound of Music. In addition, Disney made family entertainment in the form of movies available by their production of 101 Dalmatians and Pinocchio. In movies, taboos of sex, violence and language were set aside as seen in the six James Bond movies, The Graduate, and Midnight Cowboy. The MPAA had to write a new code because of these changes.

      Radio remained the main way for Americans to listen and dance to music. From coast to coast, people could listen to the same programs at the same time. The only really change to Radio at this time was the change of music from AM to FM.

     Television in the sixties had a second prime time for the popular cartoon shows. These included The Flintstones, Alvin and the Chipmunks, and many more programs. Also many TV shows appeared at the time that featured humor as there main aspect.

     During the sixties people started to move away from the older shows and theater for new upbeat movies with new morals. This depicts that post war America was ready to move quickly ahead and not afraid to try something new.

 

1963 Jetsons Promo on ABC:                                                                                                                 1960's Era TV:

 

FOOD & DRINK

     Eating in the 60s was an amazing experience as, much like many other norms in the country, traditional dishes were being forgotten and replaced by more different and unique items. One can look at the 60s as being a decade mainly dominated by junk food. Junk food was created to be a product for the children of the baby boom age as America was full of them. Much of the snack food that we eat and enjoy today was created during the 60s like: Pop-Tarts (1967), Gatorade (1965), the Slurpee (1967), Sprite (1961), Yoplait yogurt (1964), Doritos (1966), and Frosted Mini Wheats (1969). There were also several famous food chain restaurants that appeared during this time such as: Wendy's (1969), Red Lobster (1968), Benihana Japanese Steakhouse, and Taco Bell (1962).

 

 

PRINT CULTURE & LITERATURE 

     American Literature continued to prosper during the 1960’s as America was leaning towards judgment and young adults continued to question the values and norms of adults. It also prospered as many of the literature reflected the social and political movements of this decade.  Many of the American writers that prospered during this decade are considered to be America’s best writers today. Some of these writers include Kurt Vonnegut Jr. who wrote Slaughter House Five, Ian Fleming who wrote the iconic James Bond novels, and William Faulkner who wrote The Reiver. One of the most renowned books written during the time was To Kill a Mockingbird, a powerful story about racism in a small town in Alabama. Furthermore, science fiction gained popularity as Stranger in a Stranger land by Harper Lee became the first science fiction novel to be on The New York Times bestseller list.

 

     During the 1960’s, Truman Capote created a new genre within American literature, nonfiction, by writing In Cold Blood. A nonfiction novel is a book written about true narratives of people and recorded events compiled into a novel. In Cold Blood was first published in 1965 and quickly became a success. Capote was credited with mixing the two fields of journalism and fiction together to create a new genre. In his novel, Capote describes intricately the characteristics, activities, and circumstances behind their last days of their murder. He also describes the investigation process of the murder and the trial and execution of the murderers. As the book portrays the murderer sympathetically, it had Americans ask themselves whether a man alone should be held responsible for his action when society around him has rejected him as it describes the murderer’s history of childhood abuse and ridicule as an adult.

 

     Another popular book published during this decade was To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee. The novel gives an authentic representation of racial tensions in the United States during the 1930’s. The novel was very popular as it illustrated the racial tensions of the time by using a common symbol with multiple subplots  It was also popular as it exposed the culture of Jim Crow America. The novel influenced the civil rights movement as it coincided with the time and rejected prejudice in America. Today, it is read by high school classes all over the country.

 

            Slaughterhouse Five was another book that influenced American culture. Based on the author’s experiences, Kurt Vonnegut, as a World War II prisoner, the book is about a character who suddenly finds himself in different periods of time allowing him to witness many extraordinary events from the Dresden bombing to being kidnapped by aliens. This allowed Vonnegut to portray many popular themes of the decade such as the dangers of untested advanced technology, the limit of control of Humans in this rather random world, and the human need for people to treat each other with kindness. After writing this book, Vonnegut quoted a saying that quickly became a way of life for many Americans,

 

 “God grant me the serenity to accept
the things I cannot change,
courage to change the things I can,
and wisdom always to tell the difference.”

 

      Many women wrote about gender to help instigate thought on feminism in America. One of these writers, Betty Friedan, wrote The Feminine Mystique in which she sent a questionnaire to women in her graduating class of 1942. Her questionnaire indicated that there was a common frustration with women in their lives. This inspired Frieden to research in depth in what she calls the “mystique”, as she defined it as, “the worthlessness women feel in roles that require them to be financially, intellectually and emotionally dependent upon their husbands.” She found that women were a victims of a belief that they are required to find false identity and purpose in life with their lives through their husbands and children.

 

     Children’s and Teen’s literature also prospered during the decade. The Catcher in The Rye by J.D. Salinger, written in the 1960’s, is one of the most taught books in America today. Other books such as S.E. Hinton’s The Outsiders were also as successfulas they discussed the challenges  growing up during the 1960’s. Many of the 1960’s most popular children’s books include Where The Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak and the famous Dr. Suess books. One of his bestsellers included Green Eggs and Ham(1960).  Dr. Suess’ books became popular as he challenged children’s book’s writers to create a book children would be willing to read. His books with colorful pages and musical rhymes continue to entertain American children today.

 

     Many magazines continued to shut their doors during the 1960’s as many Americans turned to the television for news and entertainment. However, many magazines began catering to specific audiences as the popularity of the television lead to the decline of general magazine subscriptions. This paved a path for many magazines such as The Rolling Stones; a countercultural magazine appealing to the hippies of the 1960’s and came to represent the dissident values associated with rock and roll at the time. It also had an accepting attitude towards drugs at this time, inspiring its readers to use illicit drugs. It even offered free marijuana cigarette holders to new subscribers to the magazine. This influenced many Americans during the 1960’s to hold countercultural values against the norms of the United States.

 

     During the 1960s also, newspapers known as the “underground press” became popular as teenagers and college students began holding countercultural values. These newspapers were written to spread the ideas about countercultural values, instigate opposition to what they called “The Establishment”, and drug influenced analysis of art, music and cinema. They also included comic strips with such ideas as comic books were a huge fad during the 1960’s.

 

     Spider-man, one of today’s most famous superhero, was also created during the decade of the 1960’s.  Spider-man prospered during the 1960’s as it portrayed American characteristics of the decade such as jealousy, lack of confidence, and isolation.  This allowed it to stand out from many other comic book characters of the time that seemed rather fictional. As most teenagers of the time read comic books, Marvel Comics wanted to influence children by creating a character that is a teenager himself and faced the same difficulties many teenagers did at the time.  Spider-man was also written to send a moral message. Spider-man was compelled to serve his society after tragedy struck. This was served to tell the youth of the time to stop expressing their discontentment of their society, end their political, social, and cultural changes, and rather serve their country. By sending such message in a medium of a comic book, this allowed Marvel Comics to shape youth culture during the 1960’s.

 

     The Whole Earth Catalog also affected the way Americans viewed progress in technology and society.  The 1960’s was essentially an era of new ideas and innovative technologies. The catalog was first published in 1968 and informed America of the new innovations, books, ideas, and technology of the decade. The magazine also came to symbolize the character of curiosity and innovation shown during the 1960’s. The catalog compiled a list of innovations of the decade and served to teach Americans about the innovations helping America progress at the time. Brand said that part of the purpose the catalog served was, “to put power back into the hand of the people”, part of the idea that was going around within Americans during the counterculture movement. The catalog served to help these youth find the tools to live their life with their own values rather than the ones anticipated by American society and their parents.

 

 

 

Above: Popular Literature during the 1960's

 

SPORTS & GAMES

     During the 1960’s the sporting events are a great representation of all the other social and political events of the time. Their were three main sports teams at this time, Green bay Packers in football, Boston Celtics in basketball, and the New York Mets in baseball. Although at this time amateur and collage sports were still seen more pure and preferred compared to paid major league athletes were on the rise.

     People loved supporting their hometown college even if they did not go to it. Since the invention of the television allowed a few college games would be on television therefore generating revenue for these collages. Since the television channels wanted to show the best game the bigger colleges with the wining record was on the television most of the time. These colleges became richer and then able to recruit some of the best collage athletes therefore getting a better and better team.

     During the sixties the media loved to follow athletes in all of their fame and glory. However somewhat like today the newspaper and television programs did not exploit the athlete’s weaknesses or mistakes. This gave the American people a false view of athletes as indestructible heroes. A couple of the main heroes of this time were Muhammad Ali (Boxer), Vince Lombardi (Football Player), and Billie Jean Kid (Tennis).

     During the 1960’s the racial barrier remand by not letting African Americans to play key positions on sport teams. An example of this barrier being somewhat broken of this time is in 1967 when Bill Russell, an African American, became the head coach of the Boston Celtics. Also during the Olympics of 1968 two African Americans from the United States, Tommie smith and John Carlos, got first and third place in a sprint and the games.

In conclusion the sports of the 1960’s depicted the social and political events going on in American culture. During this time many accomplishments had been made to abolish the connection between racism and sports in the United States. This depicts that after WWII the United States was ready fix some of its own problems such as racism.

 

Video presents all the main sporting events and sporting figures of the 1960's

 

 

MUSIC!

     The 1960’s spawned new popular music and artists, and also expanded on the music of the 1950’s. Rock ‘n roll gained even more prominence and began disperse into different subgenres. Folk artists such as Bob Dylan and Joan Baez emerged during the period and soon gave way into folk-rock bands like Simon and Garfunkel. Their songs often addressed political issues which were prominent at the time, including the Vietnam War.  Woodstock and Detroit’s Motown also emerged during the sixties; their influence still remains to this day on.

     The Beatles dominated the mainstream rock scene. Originating from Liverpool, England, the Fab Four consisted of Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, John Lennon, and George Harrison. The Beatles exploded across British borders into the United States with top songs such as “I Want To Hold Your Hand” and “She Loves You”. Their distinctive look of long hair and short boots set them apart from other musicians in the 60s, and their music essentially redefined the genre of pop-rock. Along with The Beatles came the Rolling Stones in a phase dubbed “The British Invasion”. The Stones brought a harder sound to rock while maintaining a foundation in the blues genre. Their songs “Let’s Spend The Night Together” and “Paint it Black” contributed to their bad-boy image in stark contrast with the innocence of The Beatles. One of the most controversial acts included the American band The Doors, formed in 1965. With popular songs like "Hello, I Love You" and "Love Her Madly", the band was had maniacal live performances.. The Beach Boys also made their starring appearance during the 60’s with their uplifting surf-music about teenage life and yearning to stay young, yet also becoming an adult. Simon and Garfunkel pioneered the genre of “folk-rock”. Their third album, Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme (1966), produced the widely-famous songs “Scarborough Fair” and “A Hazy Shade of Winter”. Bob Dylan also exerted heavy influence in shaping the genre of folk-rock and rock and roll. His songs “Blowin’ In The Wind” and “The Times They Are A-Changin’” were powerful and moving in the sixties, and are still well-known more than forty years after their debut. The emergence of Motown in Detroit, Michigan was significant in developing soul music. It was founded by Berry Gordy Jr. in 1959, and had its named derived from “motor town,” as Detroit was one of the most important cities in the auto industry. Gordy’s efforts at searching the motor city for vocal talent paid off as Motown was the birthplace of major hit singers, including Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Diana Ross, The Supremes, and The Temptations. In its lifespan, Motown went on to produce more than fifty chart-topping rhythm and blues singles.

     Possibly one of the most influential music festivals in the history of rock ‘n roll, the Woodstock Festival of 1969 brought together hundreds of thousands of viewers and visitors for three days of peace and music. The festival was held at the Yasgur farm in Bethel, New York. On the day of the festival, more than five thousand young people attended and caused a significant number of difficulties for the concert holders who had not expected such a large turnout. However, these problems were soon overlooked with the attention turned to the major artists who were performing at the time, including The Who, Jimi Hendrix, Jefferson Airplane, Santana, and Joe Cocker. Woodstock was soon reflected on as a peaceful gathering of the era’s youth, and was a large part in the formation of hippie idealism.

 

 

EVERYDAY LIFE

     During the 1960’s, the country was not willing to allow social inequalities within American society. This lead many changed to being passed within US Congress. Prior to the 1960’s, women were significantly paid lower than men. The passing of the Equal Pay Act in 1963 which brought more women to work. According to Stanley Lebergott in American Consumers in the Twentieth Century,  the 1960’s was a time of prosper for the American economy as the average income increased by 36 percent, women’s participation in the American workforce increased to 43 percent, and unemployment declined to 3 percent.  This allowed Americans to live in a finer standard of living. Historian Ruth Schwartz Cowan says in his book, More Work for Mother,

 

      ““By 1960 the numbers of Americans who could afford to live at a ‘decent’ and ‘healthful’ standard of living had become the average American; decency, cleanliness, rudimentary nutrition, and rudimentary healthfulness were no longer the privileges

of the elite. The minimum subsistence budget that was used to determine welfare payments in New York City in 1960 would have been regarded as luxurious in 1910 or in 1930. A four-person family was permitted to rent a five-room flat so that each member could be ‘alone in a room’ — a luxury inconceivable earlier in the century. The flat was to be outfitted with a complete bathroom (hot and cold running water), a complete kitchen (. . . refrigerator, gas or electric range), and central heat. The diet . . . was not to contain luxurious foods such as steak, but did allow meat, milk, fresh fruits, and vegetables to be served at least once a day.“

 

       More and more families began moving into the suburbs of cities as cars made it possible for Americans to live farther away from their places of work. During the 1960’s, families began getting smaller as the average members of a family were four people. As Americans entered the decade, families began moving into bigger houses. The word household during this time reffered to the nuclear family rather than including grandparents and relatives as in the previous decade. The average family had more appliances and space versus families in the previous eras. Electricity powers all the appliances within the house and a gas burner is used. Nearly every home has heat and running water.

 

     The typical family purchases goods rather than making goods at home. Homemade goods are usually made by young girls as a hobby. Many of the items are imported from other countries rather than being produced in the United States.  A typical family during the 1960’s had many time-saving devices-allowing parents to work for longer hours- such as vacuum cleaners, stove, iron, toaster, and a washing machine.

 

      Every night, many American families sit together to watch their brand new television set and be connected to the rest of the world. In the 1950’s, only 9 percent of American families had television sets. However, by the 1960s, that number increased to more than 87 percent.  They sit down to watch the news and other favorites at the time such as The Lucy Show, The Beverly Hills Hillbillies, and I Dream of Jennie. In addition, the typical family also connects to the outside world by owning a couple of radios.

           

     Magazine were still of a craze at this time, however, magazine companies saw a decline in subscriptions as more and more people began buying television sets. The average family subscribed to many different magazines as mothers’ favorites was Life Magazine, fathers’ US News And World Report, sons liked Sports Illustrated while daughters liked Seventeen.

 

       Many fathers of the time took jobs that were available with a high school diploma. They also worked very far away, so many carpooled with neighbors to work. A typical father would work on average about 40 hours a week. As jobs have become more competitive, many companies required fathers to go back to college. This gave incentives to many fathers such as higher positions and advanced salaries. Many fathers during this decade became the first person in a line of generations to go to college. Many of the jobs fathers took include sales trainee, industrial salesmen, and engineers.

 

     During the 1960’s, only 30 percent of women worked outside of the home. Many would spend their days working as a housewife; however, many at the same time took small part time jobs. Many worked simply to buy her “wants”. Many of a mother’s responsibilities include housekeeping, grocery shopping, cooking, and laundry. As appliances become more modern and affordable, this created lots of spare time during a mother’s life.  However, during the 60’s, standards of cleanliness rose, therefore, mother’s were expected to spend more of their time cleaning.

 

     During the 1960’s, there was also a radical lifestyle sweeping through America.  The Hippies became a recognized social group within the United States’ social society during the 1960’s. They represented the countercultural revolution most famous during this decade. Hippies were mostly in their youth of ages 15 to 25 years of old. They rejected the values society has placed on them and created a new counterculture. They were described as people who wore bright clothing, rejected the idea of relationship within a family, valued the use of hallucinogens, and lived together in communes. They’re philosophy suggested that they had a what they said, “live for today” philosophy.

 

 

 

Above: Life during the 1960's

 

GOVERNMENT & POLITICS

     The 1960’s way nicknamed a decade of contrasts for a few reasons. The overarching argument behind such a name is that political opinion varied greatly across the United States during this time period, and every single group or party longed to have a say in the way the government was run, who ran it, and what policies they implemented. During his famous inaugural speech John F. Kennedy stated “Ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country”. With this phrase, he welcomed in a decade of activism, which would later be the source of political conflicts and other dilemmas for the people of America. Soon idealists throughout the nation rushed with eagerness to join the Peace Corps to help those in need in distant lands, while other charged towards VISTA, or Volunteers in service to America, which allowed Americans to improve the lives of others within their community and homeland. Another group that increased in popularity was the Students for a Democratic Society, or SDS. This group was an activist group, which would later demand not only excessive freedom but also an end to the violent war in Vietnam. Nonetheless, as the 60’s went forth, the promising decade of optimism and idealism took a turn towards pessimism and antagonism from the American people.

 

     The disillusionment of the optimistic society began with the continuation of the Cold War with the Soviet Union. As both sides now possessed weapons of mass destruction, humanity now had the means to exterminate itself. Many Americans feared the actual implementation of the atomic warheads. A summit was scheduled to occur between the U.S. and the Soviet Union in hope of the reduction of their atomic arsenal in 1960, however the U-2 affair ensured that the summit did not occur. The U-2 affair escalated tensions between the Soviet Union and the U.S. as the U.S. had been caught red-handed spying upon the Soviet Union. Another summit was then scheduled and took place in Vienna on the 4^th of June in 1961 with Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet premier, and yet the meeting accomplished close to nothing as the two nations could not agree upon the status of Germany and its city of Berlin as both nations wanted access to the city and if the Soviet Union cut of access for the U.S., they were going to wage war. After the summit, the war’s tone didn’t alter much, and when talks about banning the aboveground testing of nuclear weapons came up, the Soviet Union, Germany, and the U.S. could not come to terms, and thus only the U.S. stopped briefly their testing, but soon after resumed it. Furthermore, U.S. saw increasing concern for the nations of Southeast Asia as they were being governed by Communist rule. This in turn led to the development of the Single Integrated Operational Plan by the U.S. government, which entailed strategic attacks using nuclear weapons, and this was a defense mechanism if the Soviets decided to wage war. Moreover, in 1962, evidence of the construction of ballistic missiles by the Soviets is discovered in Cuba, which raises alarm in the U.S. and spurs John F. Kennedy to create the National Security Council. As tensions continued to escalate, Khrushchev came in contact with Kennedy and stated that the U.S.S.R. would remove its missiles from Cuba only if the U.S. promised not to invade Cuba and if it removed its missiles from the Turkey, and an agreement was soon reached effectively ending the Cold War, which had almost pushed to extremely powerful nations to the brink of nuclear warfare. Faced with the fear of obliteration the American optimism began to give way to antagonism, as many people saw images of the weapons and knew of their destructive potential. This was the beginning of the disillusionment of the idealistic society of the United States.

 

     Furthermore, during this decade the “space race” between the Soviet Union and the U.S. took place. In it both countries aimed for new breakthroughs in technology and navigation in order to explore space. Each nation had its set of accomplishments. For example, on January 31, 1961, the U.S. launched a chimpanzee into space for the first time, as a test flight of Project Mercury. Then on April 12-May 5, 1961, the Soviet Union lands two cosmonauts who become the first men in space. Soon after, on May 25, 1961, Kennedy officially declares the “race” between the two nations and states that the U.S. plans to place a man on the moon and return him as well. Then on October 12, 1964, the Soviet Union launches the first space flight with more than one man and on March 18, 1965 Soviet cosmonaut Aleksei Leonev walks in space for ten minutes. Then on March 16, 1966 with Gemini 8, U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong and David Scott land the first orbital aircraft. The space race illustrates the American desire to be great in all aspects of its existence, during this decade society believed that they could achieve anything, before the wars came upon it, and the competition between another powerful nation pushed it succeed and make its people proud, as Kennedy wanted to stay in the lines of public opinion.

 

            Although tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union began to decrease, soon came America’s participation in the Vietnam War. Their decision to become involved in this war is traced back to the alteration in foreign policy made in previous decades (40’s and 50’s) where the U.S. decided that they were to ensure that Communism be contained and not spread to other nations. America did begin to enforce their principal of self-determination for the people of the Indochinese colonies after a civil war in China resulted in a communist stronghold and as communist North Korea overtook South Korea. The U.S. wanted to spread democracy, however, it also wanted to prevent the spread of Communism. Furthermore, as declared in the Atlantic Charter, the U.S. sought trade with the Indochinese colonies. However, the government made the assumption that it knew what was best for the Vietnamese people, thus the U.S. sent in thousands of troops into South Vietnam to aid the South Vietnamese troops. The U.S. also supported the prime minister of Vietnam at that time, Ngo Dinh Diem, as he opposed communist rule. The American people at first had the mentality of aiding these people overseas and what seems like having their best interests in mind, yet it all began to take a turn for the worse. After the conflict at the Gulf of Tonkin, where two American ships claimed that they were under attack, yet no solid evidence was found, President Lyndon Johnson and his successor, Richard Nixon, both believed that they now had the right to become more aggressive in terms of involvement with the war. This meant deployment of further troops and the consideration of bomb tactics. On 7 February 1965 the Vietcong attacked an American troops at Pleiku, and the U.S. reciprocated by U.S. bombing Vietcong targets in South Vietnam in order to weaken the forces of the north, which was part of the Rolling Thunder campaign, or systematic bombing in Vietnam that came to a halt in 1968. Then came the My Lai massacre, in a small town in South Vietnam, where U.S. soldiers believed that the Vietcong awaited them there, yet once they arrived they saw only old people, women, and children, yet they chose to massacre all. Thus optimism now seemed as a vague illusion for the people of the U.S. from which them were moving on from because after the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese launched another attack during Tet, the Vietnamese holiday that celebrates the lunar new year. Although this attack was put down by military means, it opened up the eyes of the American public as it illustrated that the war was not exactly in their reach and that its victory would be much more difficult to attain than the government had led society to believe. This led to the withdrawal of troops from Vietnam and the process of replacing them with South Vietnamese troops (also known at Vietnamization) as Richard Nixon took office. This was largely due to the increased protests and demonstrators across the country waging anti-war campaign, because U.S. casualties climbed up to 33,641, an amount surpassing level the casualties of the Korean War. Therefore with renewed anger at the government and with all hopes of optimism shattered. All the while protests continued and America’s public discontent rose, Nixon ordered a bombing campaign to end the war and he withheld it from the public for 4 years after 1969. As a result the U.S. foreign policy also altered, known as the Nixon Doctrine, and which stated that in the future the U.S. would not become involved in international affairs such as Vietnam and limit its indirect participation. Nevertheless, the war continued on until 1973 and casualties kept rising.

 

            Another aspect to consider in terms of government actions during the 1960’s and how they reflected the events that took place during this era and how they shaped it is that of government intertwinement with the economy. Kennedy intended to “get America moving again” which he stated in his famous campaign in reference to not allowing the wars slow down growth of the economy or lower the standard of living for the American people, as he too believed in idealism and a society that came close to immaculate. Thus he planned to lower unemployment to 4 percent and raise growth of the economy to 4-6 percent as this was the growth reported by the U.S.S.R., and this was also the decade of competition, and aspiring to be the best. He believed that this growth would generate the funds necessary for military aid, Medicare, and support for education. However, seeing as this is a decade of contrasting views, politics and the economy were topics that also had varying viewpoints. One group favored increased public spending and planned federal deficit spending. Other group wanted major tax reductions and for European nations to be reimbursed. Different groups gained different support from different Congressmen. Then Kennedy favored big businesses and passed 3 bills that would increase competition, monopolize some industries, and give tax relief for some (i.e. the bill that would create the new Communications Satellite Corporation, COMSAT). Then as Johnson takes office he focuses primarily on inflation, and during his term the cost of living was growing at a much more rapid rate than the economy itself. However, as Nixon took office, he ignored the advice given to him to focus on wage and price controls and as a result inflation hiked up to 6.5%.

 

            During this decade, the vision of “ The Great Society” was created by Lyndon B. Johnson, by which he meant that the U.S. standard of living was extremely high and for many different groups within the country. He first announced this vision in his state of the Union address, and he described that this reform would entail a “War on Poverty”, and federal support for education, and medical care for the elderly. Also, it would include protecting the rights of African Americans. Furthermore, he launched new bills that would in turn create cleaner and safer cities and support urbanization across the nation. Almost all of the laws that Johnson drafted were passed by Congress, such as Medicare and Medicaid, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Higher Education Act of 1965. The outcome of these programs was that the standard of living of many Americans increased, however due to eh Vietnam War, budget cutbacks were put in motion, which caused many programs to end, which created violence in 1964, 1965, and 1966. Then as the Conservatives took hold of power in Congress, Johnson did not introduce any new reform programs and as Richard Nixon took over, he focused less and less on fighting the war on poverty and instead targeted crime.

 

            Furthermore as America increased its participation in the Cold War, the right wing of politics began to transform itself. They began to abandon their position of isolationism, as this did not allow them to take military action to rid the U.S. of the communist influence. Before the Second World War began, the far right political movement included elements of xenophobia and sometimes even right down racism. The reason that this movement spread rapidly was because many of the groups that felt the hatred of the right-wing political party in the decades before now had something in common with them, the concept of anti-communism. These politicians craved a more extreme foreign policy, which made the U.S. also less inclined to participate in the United Nations. This movement did stick to original values in which its foundation was embedded in stressing morals and values in everyday society.

 

            Another movement was that of the New Left. This rooted from the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) at the University of Michigan in 1960. They addressed countless issues including war protesting, black voter registration, the issue of freedom of speech, and opposing war drafts. This decade embodies the rise and fall of this movement. At first it was extremely successful and played a vita role in protesting against the Vietnam War. This political movement mostly entailed people making changes to social issues such as poverty and racism through radical actions. However, by 1970, when the influence of the New Left was at its climax, the downfall began as the U.S. began keeping information from the public, the faith in this movement vanished as people no longer saw it as necessary.  

 

 

 

LEADERSHIP

     JFK was one of the most influential leaders of the 1960’s, served 1961–63. He was an incredibly popular leader of the decade and one of the most well-known and liked presidents in U.S. history. However, Kennedy’s accomplishments do not justify America’s love for this leader. This is due to the fact that on domestic issues such as racism and poverty, he made man promises to the American people yet his actions achieved little of what he spoke of and he didn’t pass much legislation that improved the lives of Americans. Many civil rights leaders thought that he only talked big and would never actually support their cause. This was mainly because he knew that Congress would not approve of the most ambitious and radical legislation he envisioned. Nonetheless, one of Kennedy’s major accomplishments is the stimulus provided to the American economy, because unlike Eisenhower, Kennedy believed in using the fiscal tools of the federal government in order to improve economic conditions. Furthermore, he increased the minimum wage from $1.00 to 1.25 an hour. He also furthered the Social security benefits and drafted legislation to aid farmers in need. Then he took control of improving federal housing (which was provided to the most destitute Americans). Also, Kennedy believed that the space race was vital to the U.S. and thus targeted many federal funds towards space spending, which eventually led tot the landing of Neil Armstrong on the moon on July 16^th, 1969. All of these programs allowed the 1960’s to be an incredibly prosperous decade. When is came to foreign affairs and foreign policy, Kennedy was not much of a military man and cost America the loss of a battle in Cuba. He barely dodged the bullet of the Soviet Union and the nuclear threat that they posed to the entire country. However, he was an incredibly amiable president that countless American’s adored and respected. The reason that the public looked up to him and appreciated his presidency was because he inspired a vision for American’s to idolize, one that was mostly characterized by simplicity and appreciating possessions that one already has. At the same time, he challenged American’s actually fulfill their values and ideals of a society of freedom, justice, and liberty. That is why when the middle of 1963 came, and he had now combated Soviet Union (them storing the nuclear missiles in Cuba), and he gave promises of solid civil rights legislation, the assassination of this president led to days of mourning as it caused pain to all that believed in his policies. New York Times columnist James Reston, quoted in Four Days in November, wrote: "America wept, not alone for its dead young President, but for itself. The grief was general, for somehow the worst in the nation had prevailed over the best." This illustrates how the years of innocence and positive outlook were coming to an end, the ominous years seemed to stretch ahead before the U.S. Thus looking back upon his presidency, Kennedy symbolized a simpler time in U.S. history, where complications of society had almost vanished. 

 

         When Lyndon B. Johnson took office from 1963–69, he was forced to address a nation full of grief and that had a shadow cast upon it from the Soviets. He had the difficult duty of living up to the expectations of the public after Kennedy was assassinated. Unlike Kennedy, Johnson had the skills necessary to push through his legislation and he took upon Kennedy’s vision. This led to the expansion of government power and the programs this is entailed, and it was one of the most rigorous approaches to such topics in U.S. history. Most of Johnson’s accomplishments were in his first three years of presidency. They were that of his vision of the “Great Society”, where he waged a “War on Poverty”, and increased funding for education, federal housing, and jobs. For example, he urged Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in honor of Kennedy and it made illegal the discrimination based upon race every in the U.S. Furthermore, he passed the legislation that created the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which entailed a Head Start program to help youth get started early on with education and provided training for the unemployed. Then came a program that he created called VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America), a version of the Peace Corps that existed within U.S. borders. This program sent out people to help others in impoverished areas throughout the nation. He then improved the infrastructure by investing in mass transit programs. According to Frederick F. Siegel, author of Troubled Journey: From Pearl Harbor to Ronald Reagan, Johnson’s plan was a "twenty-five-year backlog of liberal Democratic legislation on health, education, racial discrimination, and conservation that had been sitting on the rear burner" since the end of major New Deal legislation in the late 1930s. However, his downfall came when the Vietnam War escalated, when violence increased rapidly within impoverished districts, and the unrest caused by the intense anti-war movement. Moreover, he was a successful president because he could go “far left” and “far right” to please both sides of he country, thus he assured civil liberties and also assumed many conservative views, however him going to both sides caused a dilemma later that began to lead to his downfall. Another issue that he encountered was that of Vietnam, because at when he was allowed to become increasingly aggressive after the incident at the Gulf of Tonkin (where Americans claimed that they were bombarded with North Vietnamese missiles), the number of casualties spiked, communist support across Vietnam increased, and the United States had now spent  $140 billion on war they were sure to lose. Also, he felt pressure from young conservatives that urged him to take more severe action in order to combat the spread of Communism. Overall, the increasing riots and violence, as well as the beginning of the hippie movement made it apparent to Americans that their country was going down without a fight and the people chose to blame Johnson. As the problems weighed down heavily upon him, he felt entirely overwhelmed by the conflicts surrounding him and thus did no run for re-election. On February 27, 1968, CBS Evening News host, Walter Cronkite, stated that “…it seem now more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate.", during the ongoing Tet Offensive, the two month attack upon the American troops by the Vietcong. This opinion began to draw the attention of many Americans and soon much of the public believed these words. His presidency highlights the promise that the 1960’s held at a time when simplicity was a possibility, but also the perils that it had laid out in front of the American society.

 

                 Next came Richard Nixon that was not admired by the American public nor by even his close friends and colleagues. However, through his policies he did become accepted by the general public, large corporations, and the Republicans that wanted to end violence across the nation as well as antiwar demonstrations and the culture of the hippies. Nixon seemed like a man that was strict, prim, and orderly, ye he was successful with such an image because he said that he was the voice speaking for the “silent majority”.  Although Nixon worked to please all of the people of the U.S., he had a few setbacks such as the failing economy. However, he had a tremendous impact in ending riots and the counterculture, as he spoke out about how the antiwar protests were illegal and that the culture was without value or moral guidance. This created an atmosphere in the U.S. where this culture was no longer accepted, yet then when the local officials tried to enforce it, the shooting at Kent State University occurred. Another grand achievement of his that he is most well known for is his use of the foreign policy. His goal was to get U.S. access to foreign markets and he did this by visiting the Communist republic of China as well as the Soviet Union in order to induce talks that would decrease tension between the countries. He was also a president that at last understood that the U.S. could not longer afford its involvement in the war, thus he began the withdrawal of troops. However, he did authorize the bombing that occurred at the end of the 1960’s that was only released to the public four years later. With Nixon’s actions the conservative legacy lived on and it was also displayed by Barry Goldwater and George Wallace. Their ideas addressed the obliteration of Communism, the reduction in the government’s monetary involvement in the economy, and to spread their values. These ideas then prevailed during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. 

 

     Besides the leaders that were entirely entrusted with political power, there were others that significantly shaped not only the sixties but the decades to come. One example of such a leader is Martin Luther King Jr and Malcolm X. After his participation in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, people admired him and it gave him a power to persuade people to join his cause and become ambitious civil rights activists. King then assumed the position of President of the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference). He believed in the acts of civil disobedience and combating hate with love, ad although Malcolm X did not believe in nonviolent means of demanding rights, he did believe in furthering the cause of the civil rights movement as a whole, for he too delivered speeches and led demonstrations, and started the Organization of Afro-American Unity. The overarching goal of the SCLC was to end segregation for good and to pursue social equality in all aspects of their being. Some of the means of civil disobedience that were used were marches, boycotts, sit-ins, and voter registration drives. The also collaborated on many projects with other organizations across the South, and this movement created the grass roots for the Civil Rights movement throughout the entire South. Some other leaders of this movement included John Lewis and Phillip Randolph. All of the leaders with King as their guide spoke of America’s future and posterity as a generation that would hold equal opportunities for all races, all religions, and all genders. That is when King delivered his “I Have Dream”. The emotional power that the speech possessed caused the entire U.S. to hold its breath and only to exhale when he was done and when he addressed the entire nation when he “let freedom ring!”. Through theses actions King inspired countless Americans to take their lives into their own hands and so assume control, to not comply with subordination or second-class treatment any longer, as it was downright degrading. This inspiration came up more prominently during the largest demonstration, The March on Washington. It instilled hope that every idea mentioned in King’s speech was in fact possible because now all of the media displayed for all of America to see, that African Americans and whites could coexist in peaceful means, that they could support each other and be by each others side, that they could become one whole nation, indivisible, and with justice for all. 

 

     Some of the other movements that had grass roots in this decade were that of anti-globalization, antiwar, educational reform, environmental, gay rights, and the feminist movement. The anti-globalization movement entailed people who believed in the concept of protectionism, or the idea of creating barriers to restrict trade with foreign countries as well as to prevent the U.S. entering too many world markets. The rationale behind this is not just the pure and simple opposition of globalization but rather the way it came about. The activists of this movement argued that the presence of foreign countries such as the U.S. on other land and the extraction of resources and the exploitation of labor led to many unjust and desolated conditions in nations around the globe.

 

            Then there is the antiwar movement, where many opposed not only military conscription, but also the concept of waging war on innocent people. Hundreds of protests were held across the country, the most well known is the demonstration that occurred in New York in 1967, this was after this movement took hold of the youth of the U.S. and as this influence spread universities began hosting teach-ins or classes where the 50 or 60 professors would disclose information about the war, which would then evolve into heated debate by both pro and antiwar individuals. Many other protests caused by this movement turned into extremely violent riots, but did draw the attention of the public as to how devastating the war truly was, causing many to believe that the war on Vietnam was not only irrational but also unjustified, as it resulted in high casualties of not only soldiers but civilians.

 

            Another movement is that of the educational reform movement. Groups that were often discriminated against in every other aspect of society were becoming intolerant of this unjust treatment and they began by at least trying to get the right to education, great education, and the education that the white children received. Many African Americans marched and demonstrated for the integration of public schools. Also, the Hispanic American students made their voice heard, when they stood their ground and rose against white teachers and school boards, and they gave them a list of demands. Such actions helped reshape the educational system and ease the concept on integration into the mind of Americans who were reluctant to accept it. Furthermore, during this time period Johnson passed the controversial Bilingual Education Act, which stated that courses at public schools were to be taught in more than one language, but at the same time teaching them English which would help them transition into taking fully English courses. This act allowed many of the poor minorities, such as immigrants, to receive great education.

 

            The environmental movement also began to move rapidly forward I the 1960’s. First the Wilderness Awareness act was passed, and it protected some parts of nature in the U.S. from any human destruction or use. Additionally, when the controversial idea of flooding the Grand Canyon was proposed by the government, the Sierra Club ran advertisements in The New York Times that demonstrated the opposition for such a plan. The organization continued gaining power and members, thus soon Congress abandoned the plan. Another issue that was brought up during the late 1960’s was that of overpopulation and the issues it posed, such as housing, schools, clothing, and most importantly food. The only solution that people saw was to increase the production of consumer goods and expand farm production, which would all hurt the environment as it would lead to more waste and pollution. Also many publications such as Scientist Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring and Paul Erhlich’s The Population Bomb, began to shape the modern environmental movement. However, what made this movement truly relevant to U.S. history is that it focused on the greater good of humanity versus just a population.

 

            Another movement was that of gay/lesbian rights. This movement consisted of accomplishments of obtaining victories in court, which would lead to job security and more protection from discrimination in education. Their ultimate goal was to liberate the U.S. of people who feared gays and to gain acceptance from them, which would come through the obtainment of legal rights. This movement would soon assume radical measures and gave way to the modern gay rights movement. One example of such a measure is the demonstration at the White House by Franklin Kameny in 1965, and it was the first of its kind as it took place in places varying from Philadelphia to D.C. over a course of four years.

 

            The feminist movement also gained momentum in the 1960’s as this was the period of second-wave feminism. This movement targeted reproductive rights, issues regarding family, equality in the workplace, and overall status equality. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 also made it possible for women to fill the same positions as jobs although they rarely got promoted and were often underpaid, but technically discrimination was banned based on gender, that is why this movement consists of women that planned to hold Congress to their words. The protest and march across the country to get legislation passed and one of their accomplishments at the time was the approval of the first birth control pill, which addressed the idea of poverty and overpopulation, however was extremely controversial in its nature. Also, President Kennedy supports this movement and makes many women have high-ranking positions under his administration. Then Betty Friedan publishes the Feminine Mystique, which criticizes the idea women are to only be concerned with family and being an obedient housewife. In fact she explores the concept of education and how vital it is to a woman, as through it she can reach to new heights and opportunities. This movement allowed for women to make their value to society known and to make people appreciate women, and this book continued to play a significant role in shaping the feminist movement into the 1970’s as more radical changes took place in the lifestyle of a woman. 

 

 

 

LAW & JUSTICE

      During the 1960’s, the American public’s views on law and justice underwent major changes. Notorious crimes such as the Manson “Family” murders and the court trial of the Chicago seven occurred during this period, along with civil rights legislatives and matters of school integration. Prominent cases in the beginning of the 1960’s included the two “in cold blood” murders committed by Richard Hickock and Perry Smith, who brutally murdered four members of a rural Kansas family. Near the end of the decade, Charles Manson and his band of followers whom he called his “Family” instigated the murders of five people, one being Sharon Tate, a young movie star who was a little over eight months pregnant.

     American voting policy regarding African Americans was still under fire by most Southern ex-Confederate states. Many of the jurisdictions had created legal barriers intended to prevent black Americans from accessing voting privileges. These unjust legislations were soon brought to an end by the mid-1960s after federal laws eliminate them. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was divided into eleven titles: to extend the life of the Civil Rights Commission of 1959, prohibit any restrictions which gave unequal voting regulations to black Americans, forbid any discrimination in the public education system, allow the executive branch to stop federal funds to public and private programs which continued to express racial discrimination, and to give authority to the attorney general to desegregate state or local facilities if written complaints were received. The Supreme Court also enforced the “one man, one vote” concept, giving it constitutional protection implementing the rule that voting districts for the same representative bodies possess equal amounts of voters. After President Roosevelt gained control of the U. S. Supreme Court, legislations which infringed on individual rights were put under scrutiny, especially those regarding criminal rights. Public opinion leaned toward curbing the availability of rights from the first 10 amendments in the Constitution for those who had been convicted of serious felonies. However, throughout the decade of the sixties, several decisions were made by the Supreme Court which ruled all constitutional rights such as the right to counsel and the right to remain silent should be accessible and usable in all criminal cases, disregarding the social class or the severity of the crime in question.

     In 1968, the Civil Rights Bill had been modified to include a new ruling which stated that it was a violation of federal standing to travel or use interstate travel routs with any motive or intent or rioting, calling it the Anti-Riot act. After the Democratic Party had held a national convention in Chicago, five head members of the groups National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam (MOBE), the Youth International Party (Yippies) and three other men were charged for violating the act. The duration of the convention had seen the protest include clashes between the protesters, the police, and the National Guard. The defendants saw their arrest and trial proceedings as a valuable method to try and publicize their anti-war views. A heated trial ensued with insulting jabs traded between the defense and the prosecution, with fuel added to the fire as the case was in the hands of Judge Julius Hoffman who was not a man known for his patience. The trial was drawn out for five tense months, and later became known as the trial of the infamous Chicago Seven (the eighth member had been bound and gagged for agitating behavior and sentenced to forty-eight months in jail prior to a verdict being announced). When the jury finally retired to discuss their verdict, they were deeply divided in views. Finally, it was a consensus to acquit two defendants who were a professor and a student, and to convict the remaining five of violating the Anti-Riot act.

 

 

RELIGION 

     The 60's was a decade of changes in every aspect of American life. A country previously dominated by Anglo-Saxon beliefs was now opening up to new ideas and religions. The catholic church realized that the country was changing, causing Pope John XXIII to believe that the church must modernize it services and doctrines in order to be able to connect with the people of the time.
    

     Americans we're also looking for a different kind of spiritual experience, which led to a large rise in eastern religions. Religious teachers from China and India came to America to help teach others about their religions and also published books on the topic, the most followed being Tibetan Buddhism and Zen Buddhism.One of the most popular teachers was Maharishi Mahesh Yogi who went on tour in 1967 in which he spoke at major universities across the nation, talking about the philosophies of transcendental meditation. Many people purchased his books and he also had celebrity followers. Swami Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada was another famous religious teacher who was popular amongst the hippie population. He taught them about devoting their lives to the Hindu god Krishna, which resulted in thousand of Hare Krishnas traveling around the country and trying to convert others. The Hare Krishnas, easily identifiable by their shaved heads and saffron-colored robes, were clear symbols of the spread of eastern religions in America. 

   Many African-Americans also started to leave Christianity and convert to Islam. Black Muslims were able to offer other black alternative teaching that would be able to help them with racial injustice. Finally, there was the "God is dead" movement, which came from the ideas of human evolution and the "big bang" theory and was made even more known when Time Magazine published one of their issues on the topic. It was not a large movement though as around 90 percent of Americans claimed that they believed in a god.

     In 1960, about 50 percent of Americas reported regularly attending a church or synagogue, which was more than at any time in American history. By the end of the decade, the majority of Americans was in some sort of religious faith, which displays the fact that America still remained a religious country that was also expanding its beliefs and cultural boundaries.

 

          

Above: A somewhat common scene and obvious example of the changing beliefs in America during the 1960s, a group of Hare Krishnas performing music in public, in this case Hollywood Boulevard.

 

 

 

Positive Political Cartoon

 Above: Here one can see how the government was leaning towards supporting social issues more during the 1960's. President Johnson's budget is portrayed as taking care of health and education as a priority before other war related conflicts. Also the fact that health and education is small in size portrays how little attention it received compared to military and army affairs before. Overall, the 1960's was a very good time for social welfare.

 

Negative Political Cartoon

Above: This cartoon depicts John F. Kennedy and Nikita Kruschev, the leader of the Soviet Union during 1967, trying to keep the ferocious monster entitled "Nuclear Warfare" under control. During Kennedy's term in office, he was mainly occupied with foreign affairs such as the Cold War. Kennedy and Kruschev are drawn together to depict how the Cold War was a direct feud between the two leaders.

 

 

 

MYP Unit Question: How did culture, events and leadership shape and reflect post-WWII America?

 

     The foundation of civil rights rose to prominence in the 1960's, making clear the need to extend constitutional rights to all American citizens without any regard to racial or ethnic backgrounds, physical appearence, or gender. The Civil Rights Movement staged protests such as counter sit-in, bus boycotts, and large rallies. Prior to the 1960's, mass displays of protests were rare and unheard of, but with the mounting tensions in society due to the Vietnamese war, more and more citizens were taking a stand and voicing their opinions in coordination with others who shared the same views. These methods of protests are still seen forty years later, in the fight for gay and lesbian rights and also in opposition to controversial topics surrounding war, abortion, death penalties, etc. Despite the many peaceful protests that took place, violence was also a common presence among demonstrations, which ultimatly lead to radicals from either end of the protest spectrum to cause the death of major political and civil rights leaders including John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X.
    The music of the 1960's exerted great influence on how Americans perceived rock n' roll. Prominent bands such as The Beatles set a new standard of pop rock, while folk artist Bob Dylan showed that conveying one's personal opinions, views, and political ideas through different methods of self-expressions like music was acceptable and carried messages that were very accessible to the majority individuals across the nation. The hippie movement attempted to ground a country which had been struck by the horror of violence and oppression in the ongoing war in Vietnam. Members of that counterculture were focused on spreading the ideals of love, peace, and togetherness which often took place through music, with a similar structure seen in the culture of "raving" with electronic music in the early 2000's, where rave culture centered around the phrase "P.L.U.R." (Peace, Love, Unity, Respect). Personal expression was becoming more and more acknowledged with the help of the media, including print culture and television. These means of communication enhanced consumer's exposure to new products that promoted certain lifestyles: wealth, leisure, and consumption. America also made its stand as an important creator of autmobiles and a country which was engrossed with major league sports and glamorous films. Theatre and movies during the sixties diverged from the old fashioned and moved toward more upbeat storylines and encompassed new morals. At the time, sports and games were heavily segregated, yet with the onset of the new Civil Rights Movement, many teams were attempting to stray away from racism in major league teams and working toward abolishing racism in athletics. Authors incorporated social, political, and cultural influences into their literature and produced many of the famous novels that high school students read and analyze to this day. At either end of the writing spectrum were authors who either advised the readers to adhere to the standard cultural norms at the time or authors who rallied support for the counterculture movements. The constant invention of modern appliances allowed parents to spend more time with their kids and freed woman from labouring away in the household, and opened new opportunities for them. Teenagers often felt trapped within the limitations that society placed on them, thus causing them to break free from the mold and seek out their own methods of expression and values based on their opinions, making way for the idea that it was not only adults who could leave imprints on society. This also manifested itself through the fashion movement during the 60's when bright colors and dark makeup became extremely popular, along with shorter skirts and rougher patterns. The generation gap began to widen as the teenagers split away from the values of their parents in order to make their own footprints on the surface of the U.S. The country was also becoming more religiously diverse, and Eastern religions began making appearances.
    Furthermore, others movements had their grassroots in the 1960's. Some of these movement include the beginning of the Environmental movement which illustrates concern for natures resources and their use, which reflects post WWII America because this illustrates increased awareness of preserving what one already had, instead of destroying it as this occurred in WWII. Also this movement illustrates concern for the greater good of all of humanity and thus developed into today's present day environmental movement. Another movement is that of feminism, and although the second wave of feminism swept the U.S. between the 1960's and the 1970's, this movement is still present today as women are still fighting for eqaulity in the work place and more legislation that protects them from gender based discrimination. Another movement that picked up momentum was the gay/lesbian movement, which also gave way to today's movements. The anti-war movement of the United States reflects post WWII America also because once the U.S. witnessed heinous acts of murder during the Vietnam War, they tried by all means to stop it. All of these movements reflected post WWII America because now the main means of accomplishing a set goal by civil disobedience or other nonviolent means, as the U.S. and the rest of the world had already witnessed enough devastation and loss during WWII. Additionally, considering the fact that this many movements were well on their way during the 1960's, its illustrates the passing of the torch of power and control from the government of the U.S. to the people that deserved it. Although many of these people had to demand their rights, demand justice, and demand to have their voice heard, they did accomplish this by asserting their power by demonstrating, protesting, boycotting, and rallying. The passing of this torch was a lengthy and intricate process that required patience and skill, but this constant passing of the torch occurs today when countless different groups of people still use the same methods to achieve similar goals, such as passing legislation for rights, against discrimination, and for better living/working conditions. This passing of the torch also represents how America is gradually taking steps to becoming the envisioned and ideal democracy, by governing for and by the people. 

        All in all, the decade of the 1960's shaped all aspects of post WWII America and reflected the events of that time period as well. The prevailing legacy of the 1960's as a decade of varying political views, swaying domestic and foreign policy, and a time where change was in the air. From the rise and fall of countless progressive movements, the successes and losses, the American public little by little got stronger hold of the torch of power, leading towards the country we are today, and demonstrating once and for all that the 1960's were a vital stepping stone to the present day United States of America .he Life They Lived- As the economy prospered during the 1960's, parents were able to spend more leisure time with kids. This also made modern appliances more accessible leading to even more leisure time. This allowed for the cultural aspect of America to flourish. As teenagers felt trapped within society's values and norms, they seeked to create their own culture based on their own values.

 

 

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