How did culture, events and leadership shape and reflect post-WWII America?
Table of Contents:
Business & the Economy:
Many Americans had high expectations of business conditions and the overall economy leading into the 1970s that were created in the post-World War II years. However, the 70s as a whole reflect aggressive inflation and poor economic growth. This combination of unwanted economic issues coined the term "Stagflation".
The inflation came as a result of the after-effects of Lyndon Johnson's (president from 1963-1969) Great Society programs and his great investment into the Vietnam war. The Stagflation led to higher interest rates and high unemployment rates, similar to the recession we are experiencing today. Many journalists and historians compare the economy of the 1970s to the economy of today as the lack of spending and economic growth appear as the major problems in both recessions.
In addition, the US faced two major oil crises, in 1973 and 1979. The first oil crisis resulted from a OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries' ) instead embargo on shipping petroleum to countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Israel was an enemy of the OAPEC countries, and US support of Israel led to this embargo, and therefore, explosive increasing prices on the shortage of gas. The crisis got very serious: some schools had to shut down to save heating oil and many factory workers were laid off. US citizens were not ready for the shortage, as they drove extremely large vehicles, and it was hard for the US adapt to the shortage of oil. This, again, relates to the dramatic increase in oil we experiences a couple years ago, as many people had a hard time adjusting and buying smaller cars. This crisis, combined with the stagflation at the time, created an overly desperate economic state; although not nearly as bad as the Great Depression, many people had to adjust their lifestyle to live in the economic recession.
Education:
The 1970’s was a time for change in the education systems of the United States. The primary goal was to eliminate segregation in the schools which was achieved as students of former minority groups were now given the permission to attend schools that were of all white nature in the previous decade. In addition, these minority groups were now given permission to a higher education. This was especially true in the south where schools were forced to take in students of the minority.
Despite the improvements against racial segregation and tension in the United States, test scores and achievement of the students suffered severely among students, specifically high school students. As a result, a debate grew regarding how educators should approach the issue of improving the current education system. This debate took place between the traditionalists, who wanted a firm curriculum that required more work, and the progressivists, who emphasized the importance of allowing students to have “free time” in their young lives as well as an education. Further complaints by parents caused the United States to take a traditionalist approach to the problem.
By the 1970’s, a literary crisis took place in the schools at which students it was believed that students were graduating from high school without the capability to write a coherent sentence in English. As a matter of fact, SAT scores dropped to scores that had not been that low in the past twelve years. Confusion arose as to whether the test- takers or the test- makers were at fault of the dilemma, especially among universities and colleges. Debate on whether the SAT test actually measured academic achievement caused parents and educators to accuse the curriculum of not requiring students to write and read enough, as it became evident that some students were not even able to complete the essay on the written portion of the SAT exam. In response to the dilemma, politicians required programs to be made in schools to better prepare the students for the test, and as a result the SAT test gained it’s importance and regard that it is credited for today.
The role of females in the education systems were taken into account for change by the women of the country. The goal was not only to increase the number of female faculty members in schools, but also to eliminate gender bias in the use of textbooks for students. By the end of the 1970’s women played an increasing teaching courses, writing texts, and giving their opinions on the matter. In 1974, The WOmen's Equity Act demanded all sexual prohibition
to come to a halt in regards to the participation of women in educational programs. In conclusion, women made tremendous improvements to the education system on all levels of education.
During the 1970s, the textbooks selection for student use was being censored due to arising conflicts. In some incidents, children were bringing home textbooks with unpatriotic and sac- religious text and photographs. As a result, the textbooks that were allowed to be used in schools were greatly monitored, and the process by which textbooks were selected became a much more thourough process. This was quite costly for the schooling system, in addition to the curriculum that now had to be re- organized. In conclusion, the 1970s brought about tremendous change to education and schooling, many of which we still follow and use today.
Fashion:
In the 1960s, bell bottom jeans and pants were very popular and considered a symbol of opposition to the Vietnam war. Bell-bottom pants are pants that flare out at the bottom. The style originated from the uniforms of those who served in the military. Yet, in the mid-1970s the fashion of bell bottoms died down, and were recognized as "unfashionable". Hot pants, which were very short shorts became very popular and ranged from velvet to leather. The 1970s fashion was influenced greatly on the sexuality of the decade. Short skirts were very common as well, for the fashion of the 1970s were greatly influenced by female night club dancers as well as celebrities. Yet, while looking back at the decade, often the way they dressed was found embarrassing and a negative aspect of the decade.
As the disco times increased in popularity, so did tight shirts and halter tops for girls. This was the attire usually worn to clubs and dances. The "Granny Dress" also made its appearance quite so often, which consisted of a high and tight top that extended down to the ankles, usually in bright colors. In addition to this, the Hippie look also continued- evolving from the 1960s. Flamboyant colors and tye-dye were worn as well as big and chunky accessories by both men and women.
For men, a 3 piece suit was common. The suit became much more casual in comparison to other decades. Ralph Lauren brand became very popular starting in 1969. As the years progressed and entered the 70s, Ralph Lauren reached its zenith for he designed clothes for the movie The Great Gatsby.
Ralph Lauren was a casual, and affordable brand that many wore. Men's suits became more casual like and were not worn as much for the casuality of the "Hippie Era" caused the casualty in fashion to increase.
Mood rings became the latest fad in the 1970s. Everyone, from children to adults wore them. Mood rings were exactly what they sound like: a ring that would tell someone their mood by changing color. The color would be determined by the temperature of ones body, and colors such as black would mean stressed and tense while blue meant lovable and romantic.
Film and Theater:
During the 1970's, Hollywood experienced a financial depression; but the use of language, adult content and sexuality, and became more popular. This decade is treasured through films with creative and memorable subject matters reflecting the times. Hollywood was renewed with the destruction of the studio system and the works of new film-makers.
The seventies were about deep-seated paranoia, one genuine fear in the horror films of the 70s was the fear of children, and the fear of the process of childbirth. David J Skal displayed the fear from the contraceptive pill in one of his books called The Monster Show. It also identified the birth defect horrors forced on the western world by thalidomide. The Omen: Spawn of Satan is an example of this play on terror. This time 'the enemy within' is not a shape shifting alien from another planet but in your own home. The first Movie Brats emerged in the 1970s, and ended up growing up with television and then creating their own movies. This included: Spielberg, Scorsese, Lucas, de Palma and more. Much of the focus was on box-office receipts and the production of action- and youth-oriented, blockbuster films with dazzling special effects.
Popular Movies of this time include:
- Love Story(1970)
- M*A*S*H(1970)
- Dirty Harry(1971)
- A Clockwork Orange(1971)
- Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory (1971)
- Diamond Are Forever(1972)
- The Godfather (1972)
- American Graffiti (1973)
- The Poseidon Adventure(1973)
- Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974)
- Blazing Saddles(1974)
- Young Frankenstein(1974)
- Jaws(1975)
- Carrie(1976 and 1977)
- All the Presidents Men (1976)
- Rocky(1976)
- Saturday Night Fever (1977)
- Smokey and the Bandit
- Grease(1978)
- The Omen: Spawn of Satan(1978)
- Amityville Horror(1979)
- The Muppet Movie(1979)
New Styles appeared in Hollywood such as the avant garde, which was a reflection of the 60's, and film noire. Film noir gave the public the concept of ‘dark film’. The term was formed after World War II when French citizens noticed the gloom forming in American expressions and Hollywood films. The world had become a darker place a characteristic of film noir was fatalism and ‘spider web of deceit’. The spider web of deceit was one small misstep, such as a petty crime or even a ‘little white lie’ that would send our protagonist into downfall.
As inspired by the 1940's, companies advertised to youths as seen in this Coca-Cola commercial,
Food and Drink:
In the 1970s, the use of snack foods and party foods, and packaged foods were increasing in number in the family settings. Due to the downfall of the economy in the 1970s, families relied in packaged foods for convenience and speed of the readiness to the meal. Foods such as Orville Redenbacker Popcorn, Hamburger Helper, Kraft Macaroni and Cheese dinners, Campell's Tomato Soup, and Betty Crocker Rice Pudding were becoming familiar products of the pantries of the average family household. Snacks such as Famous Amos Chocolate Chip Cookies, Country Time lemonade, and Quaker Oats Granola.
Due to the arise of these "junk" foods that were present in the average suburban families, health complications increased throughout this decade such as diabetes and increases in overall health such as blood pressure and cardiovascular health. This is especially true for the younger generation at the time, due to the attractive flavors and tastes of the new products.
All in all, snack food companies, such as Hostess, were established in the 1970s as a result of the economic instability of the time. Meals became more about convience and efficiency as oppose to healthy and fresh and the new establishments allowed quick, easy, and affordable access to this new food.
Print Culture:
Print culture in the 1970s was considered fairly confusing by the American population. Critics, during this time, stated that good literary works were no longer being produced and that the 1970s were a decade of dead literature. Much of this can be seen as true, if you look at the works of white American male writers. However, these critics were not reading that great literature being published from the minority communties. Women, hispanics, and african americans published a great load of interesting, creative, and original literature that dominated over works from white American men. Along with American minorities, foreign writers published works in America that were truly fascinating. Some of the famous writers of the 1970s were Alice Walker, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, and Jorge Luis Borges.
The literature being published by these great minority or unamerican writers was almost uplifting to Americans. The fast paced fiction that was produced flourished throughout the country as Americans read them feverishly. A popular style during the 1970 was called "trash fiction," and it featured ideals of sex, money, and power. Another style that ranked high on the best sellers list was adventure stories about spys and undercover government officials. A huge sensation for American women were the romantic series of literature that was also revealed in this decade. One of the most famous writers of this time was Stephen King, who was famous for his horror stories.
Along with popular novels and other literary works, magazines also became popular during this decade. A vast range of magazines were being produced allowing everyone to be able to find one that corresponded to their interests. One of the most popular magazines during this time was People, which gave eager Americans more gossip and stories on their most beloved and hated celebrities.
Sports & Games:
In terms of sports, television watching became more popular nationwide with the increased popularity of big stations like CBS, ABC, and NBC. More sports began to broadcast on these stations, but for the most part people watched three sports on television: football, baseball, and golf. The most popular, football, gained popularity as a result of the downfall of baseball: many of the games were fixed as refs and players were paid off before the game. This was because betting became extremely popular in previous years, especially in baseball, and throughout the 1970s baseball became less popular as the public began to become aware of the cheating and abuse of the betting system. Due to this, more and more people began to watch football instead, and its popularity on television exploded. In addition, gold became more popular as a social sport, and people began to watch it on television in bigger numbers.
The 1970s saw the creation of arcade games, large computer-like consoles where one would insert money to play a popular game. Arcades became a popular place for young people to hang out, and popular games included: space invaders, pong, lunar lander, breakout, and asteroids. Board games and other games lost popularity as these new arcade games became the coolest things to spend time on.
Space Invaders
Powered by: MySpace Games
Music:
In the 1970s, the music was perceived to be a much happier and optimistic time in comparison to the 1960s. Instead of having one specific main genre of music like previous decades, in the 1970s the music evolved in to many different genres.
In the beginning of the 1970s, some of the music reflected the confusion that had transferred over from the 1960s. The 1970s were the age of disco and dance music whereas the 1960s were more negative and psychedelic. Another genre that evolved was soft and relaxing music that came up during the time. More original music came out and people were able to express their individuality.
As dance clubs increased their popularity, disco music did too for it was the dance music of the time. Up-beat and optimistic words came out, with well known dances- such as the “YMCA” and the "Hustle".
Funk music got funkier and a popular song that was played over and over again was “Play that Funky Music”. People were sick and tired of the protests and fighting against war from the 1960s and went out more often. The long hair and peace signs no longer were a form of revolt against the war yet became a fashion statement.
Folk, rock and roll as well as punk music also became well-liked in the 1970s. Below is a playlist of a selection of popular music during the 1970s.
"The Way We Lived":
The way people lived during the 1970s was considered self centered and isolated. Deamed "The Me Decade" people's lives revolved around themselves and their own issues. People did not pursure politcal change or social development like they had in the 1960s. People retreated from the countries problems whether it was government, the economy, or civil rights. There were a couple reasons why people lived so selfishly during the 1970s. The poor economy during this decade caused family and financial issues. So many people were more worried about providing for their families then they were about changing society. Another reason was the fact that the uplifting and vivacious baby bloomer era had ended and people began to settle down. Many focused on improving their lives and achieving perfection in themselves. A majority of Americans began seeing therapists to work out problems and improve themselves and their environment. The focus on self perfection also caused a higher divorce rate because many were so infactuated with removing the bad in their lives to make themselves happier.
Although activism decreased during the 1970s, it did not completely end. The feminist movement was fairly strong during this decade as women made their steps towards equality. The Equal Rights Amendment was passed as a result of a long struggle but was unfortunately unsuccessful. Through the court case Roe vs. Wade, women gained the right to chose as the Supreme Court deemed it acceptable for women to chose an abortion. The environmental movement also emerged during this decade and became an important issue. An important moment for the environmentalists during this decade was the first Earth day, held in 1970.
People during the 1970s also were surrounded by a variety of fads. A huge fad during this time was the wearing of aerobic clothes, which the 1970s would be iconic for. Other fads included streaking (which was mostly done at colleges), tanning, as well as mood rings and pet rocks. Many Americans, although not truly considered a fad, began to join religious groups and cults during this decade. Some of these include Hare Krishnas and Moonies. Many gained popularity but none so much as the group who commit ed the mass suicide in Joneston, Guyana.
The sexual openness that was seen in the 1960s also somewhat continued through the 1970s. Although this freedom did appear, it was decreased by the increasing prevelance of STD's.
Government & Politics:
Government and Politics in the 1970s was greatly shaped by the US involvement and the ending of the Vietnam War. The United States was unable to apply enough foreign power to win the longest war America has ever fought in. On January 27th, 1973 the US signed a peace treaty with Vietnam in which American troops were ordered to withdrawal from Vietnam territory. This treaty symbolized the failed US attempt to bring its foreign policy to Vietnam. American support towards the war had been deeply split throughout the country. With its end, the gap between Americans came to a close as well.
Along with its failed foreign policy in Vietnam, the United States also began to lose their influence over foreign markets during this time. This caused economic problems as trade issues slowed the import of foreign oil, which the US so depended on. The US military also lost some of its power and influence preventing the US from pressuring foreign countries to work out the problems.
A promising aspect within the government, even with these foreign issues, did emerge as the tensions brought about from the cold war drastically decreased between the Soviet Union and the United States. President Richard Nixon recognized both of the countries economies suffering as debts grew as a result of military spending. Nixon tried to negotiate with both countries, China and the Soviet Union, to reduce the chance of altercations with the US but also to make both superpowers turn against each other. In 1972, Richard Nixon negotiated with both the Soviet Union and China. The Soviet Union had agreed to an arms control while China had talked about diplomatic policies. Even though succeeding Presidents tried to continue these good terms, by 1978 the US had begun to increase military spending as tensions once again grew.
Along with foreign problems, Americans faced domestic issues as well. Americans had already lost a great deal of faith in the Federal government due to the Vietnam War, but a scandal in the Nixon administration completely depleted all hope Americans had in their government. The Watergate scandal eventually led to Richard Nixon resigning and the conviction of some administration officials. On June 17th, a few men tried to break into the Watergate hotel where the Democratic campaign was being held at. The men were caught and arrested. It was eventually discovered that this attempted break in was requested by the Republican Party, who’s representative was Richard Nixon. Tapes began turning up showing Nixon trying to cover up the crime. After it was proven, Nixon resigned before he could be impeached, being the first president in history to resign. Nixon and the Republican Party had planned the break in to put wire taps on the democratic telephone lines. Nixon then tried to cover up these taps by saying it was for National Security. Because this wasn’t the first scandal in Nixon’s administration, the people drastically lost trust in their government.
(this video is very long but explains, in great detail, every aspect of the watergate scandal)
After Richard Nixon resigned from the presidency, Gerald Ford took became president. Ford faced increasing crime and prison population rates as riots and prison conditions raised questions. In addition, school systems and busing as well as environmental issues were debated. The most influential court ruling came in the case Roe vs. Wade in 1973. This court case gave women the right to chose an abortion, as long as it was early enough in the pregnancy. This sparked a debate that would be argued throughout history.
Leadership:
Hello, I am Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States serving from 1969-1974. I joined the United States Navy after the attack on Pearl Harbor and rose to the position of Lieutenant Commander by the end of World War Two. In 1946, I was elected into the House of Representatives as a Republican. In the 1960 election, I lost the presidential election to John F. Kennedy, and thereafter also lost the election for Governor of California in 1962 due to an unsuccessful campaign. I ran again for president in 1968, and won. The first task I was faced with when entering the presidential office, was ending the Vietnam War. This task was completed after successful negotiations with North Vietnam and the People's Republic of China, at which relations were opened between Vietnam and the United States. Due to the economic challenges of the time, I am guilty of participating in the Watergate Scandal, and thus almost faced impeachement. Therefore I resigned office in 1974 to my successor, the 38th President of the United Sates, Gerald Ford.
* Note: This was intended to be said by a voki character, but due to technological difficulty, this was not done*
Law & Justice:
Law, courts, and lawyers played increasing roles in social and political conflicts of the 1970s. Rising crime rates, the rights of the accused, and the death penalty were key social issues of this decade. Growing prison populations and prison riots spawned difficult questions about prison conditions and the stricter sentencing to respond to rising criminal activities. School busing, woman's right to abortion, and school desegregation were constructed issues in courtrooms and on the streets.
During the 1970's crime controlled the police agendas. To aid in the authorities efforts to fight crime, strategies and programs were set up.
- Extra police patrols in high-crime areas
- Arrest suspects that engage in Spousal abuse
- Units monitor repeated offenders
- Police crackdown on drug market
- Neighborhood watch
By the early 1970s, drug use had not reached its peak, but the problem was growing at a rate to gain rapid response. The Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) was created in 1971 to deal with America's growing drug problem, and later Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in 1973. The major law of enforcement investigations, such as the French Connection made by agents in the DEA's and BNDD’s illustrated the scope of America's drug problems. In order to regain control of the country, Congress passed the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) and the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. It replaced around 50 legislations on drugs and went into effect on May 1, 1971. Fighting against drugs was expensive, drug control rose from1.5 billion to 18 billion and police corruption increased. During the 70’s, many groups voiced their opinions and frustration through protest as in the 60’s. These groups included the United Farm Workers, college students, immigrants and the Black Panthers. Much of these protest were communicating their dislike of America’s involvement in war, especially the Vietnam War. A memorable protest of the decade is that of Kent State in Ohio.
In 1970 President Nixon sent troops to Cambodia which caused students around the nation to organize anti war protest. The Governor of Ohio feared riots and called National Guard to control the protesters of the Kent State protest. On May 4, the rally got out of control and National Guard killed 4 students and 8 were shoot. The web address below leads to a picture of thousands of University of Washington students and faculty spilled onto the I-5 freeway on May 5, 1970, protesting the shootings at Kent State University.
Religion:
In the 1970s, the religion continued to maintain a dominant part of American life. Yet, while looking back to the 1960s, as many more came to America from Europe, the religion became more and more diverse. Similarly, immigration rate of Asians vastly increased therefore bringing Buddhism and Hinduism into America. Also, many alternative religions made their way aboard, such as transcendental meditation. Yoga became very popular and allowed people to connect spiritually with their God.
As new religions came into the United States, the existing ones suffered from decline in attendance. America was now fighting in the Vietnam War, and countless were opposed to this. The number of protests increased evidently causing a decrease in church presence for they were part of an ongoing movement.
There was much controversy that persisted throughout the 1970s with religion. Feminism increased, and females wanted to have higher roles in the ministry and leadership of the church. Yet, as they were put down much, the female attendance in church also decreased. Correspondingly, the sexuality of the 1970s increased much for it was the “Sexual Revolution”. Homosexuality came across more often in the 1970s, yet was not fully accepted into the church. It remained debatable for many decades following on whether or not it was right.
Cartoons:
Positive Political Cartoon
Greenburg, Steve. "The Mender." Cartoon. Ventura County Star 2006. Print.
This cartoon expresses an extremely positive outlook on Gerald Ford’s policies as president, and how he helped the country recover from the Watergate scandal. After Nixon was discovered guilty in the series of scandals, many people lost faith in the country’s government as a whole. The artist of this cartoon clearly believes that Gerald Ford, who became president after Nixon resigned, helped unify the country well, proving a great leader after the lies of the Nixon administration.
Negative Political Cartoon
"White House Connection." The Watergate Scandal. Web. 9 June 2010.
This political cartoon depicts the investigation of the Watergate scandal and others negatively, in that the executive and judicial branch were not effective in their investigations, and it took over two years for Nixon to be prosecuted to the point where he had to resign. The court cases became very tedious, in that clear evidence found in Nixon's office that directly related him to the initial Watergate scandal did not speed up the investigation. The author portrays a very unprofessional, almost clueless investigation of many scandals where it took the investigators a long time before they could trace the scandals to Nixon.
MYP Unit Question:
How did culture, events and leadership shape and reflect post-WWII America?
The 1970s culture molded the United States, improving various aspects of life such as food, fashion, and film and theater. It became a part of the American culture to experiment with different genres of film-making including science fiction and horror. Certain aspects of viewing the reality of pain, death, and suffering may have been inspired by the war 35 years later as children grew up and now realized what fathers and soldiers went through. Fashion was inspired from the Vietnam war that was recently fought, that symbolized opposition and originated from uniforms worn by the fighting soldiers. Much of the clothes worn in the 70s such as bell bottom jeans were part of the resistance movement towards the war. As the war began to die down though, bell bottom jeans soon became a fashion instead of a political symbol. At this point in American history, food , and a healthy lifestyle, was not a major concern, especially with new processed foods and candies that offered a quick, easy, and cheap meal. However, this careless attidude toward health will soon be overcome as the 1980s era sprouts and a shift in focus turns inward and people try to eat healthier and loose weight. Individuality was a popular theme of the 1970s, especially in regards to music, as people expressed their new genres, such as funk music. Not just one popular genre of music was popular but rather many evolved in this decade therefore calling for the freedom that the 70s offered towards individuality. The 1970s proved to the "Me, Me, Me!" decade indicating that modern ideas and cultural aspects were improved to work toward a goal, and that was improving the lives of the Americans, whether it was improving the role of women in society or the children in schools. The American people of the 1970s changed every aspect of life into making it a better country as a whole.
Two major events during the 70s that most significantly shaped society were the Watergate scandal and the Oil Crisis of 1973. The Watergate scandal began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate complex. It led to a long string of affairs, as FBI traced the men to a committee using illegal methods to re-elect the president. Eventually, Nixon was directly connected to the issue, and he resigned before he could be successfully prosecuted. The entire affair created a greater sense of political awareness for the young generation of the 70s, and their first main exposure to politics was one of corruption. This deeply affected culture as it also created a sense of distrust in the government. Additionally, the Oil Crisis of 1973, mentioned above under business and economy, paved the way for a new culture. The shortage of oil created a recession in the economy, and forced people to find new ways to save money. This new culture, of smaller cars and cheap, processed food, shaped society indefinitely.
The 1970s were greatly shaped by the infamous administration that governed during the large part of this decade. Problems with the government and politics in the 1970s revolved around the corrupt Nixon administration and the Watergate scandal. These scandals had a huge influence on American and society as a whole. It caused many people to completely lose faith in their government during a time in which a strong government was so desperately needed. These domestic issues were made even more severe by the fact that so many Americans were against the US involvement in World War II. This poor leadership and trail of shady events greatly shaped 1970s America. There was a decrease in the amount of activism from the 1960s to the 70s because people did feel as though they had a good chance in improving American society with such a dishonest government and fraudulent politics. Americans lives began to shift from revolving around helping society to improving their own lives. People became so self centered that the 1970s were deemed “The Me Decade.” Individuality erupted and the citizens could be themselves rather than participating in protests and fights.
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"YouTube - Do The Hustle."YouTube - Broadcast Yourself.Web. 10 June 2010. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFz2WkVAk38>.
"1970s: The Way We Lived." Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 4: 1960s-1970s. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 1069-1070. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2010.
"1970s: Print Culture." Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 4: 1960s-1970s. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 997. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2010.
Law and Justice
Calisphere. 2009. Struggle for Social Justice. June 11. http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/themed_collections/subtopic6d.html
Crime Control Revisited. June 12. <http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Crime-Control-Revisited-1970s1990s-.topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9940.html >
U. S. Drug Enforcement Administration. June 12.<http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/history/1970-1975.html >
News. February 3. History. June 12.< http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/94898/tragedy_at_kent_state_in_1970_protesting.html?cat=37 >
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