Matthew Baringhaus, Conor Manley, Hannah Marcy, Marissa Webner

 

 

MYP Unit Question: How did culture, events and leadership shape and reflect post-WWII America?

 

The 1940's

 

Business & the Economy

 

 

Secretary of War, Henry Stimson "when you go to war in a capitalist country, you have to let businessmake money out of the process or business won't work" 

 

   The 1940's was one of the most diverse periods in American history.  During the 1940’s, American economy recovered from the Great Depression, and then grew to new heights because of war production for WWII and the Cold War.  The government changed its previous views about efficiency into one more worried about speed and volume of production, which allowed many businesses that produced the war goods to charge exorbitant rates (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).  Roosevelt believed that the government had to compromise with business in order to allow businesses to produce the goods needed for the war.  Secretary of War Henry Stimson reportedly said that when "you go to war in a capitalist country, you have to let business make money out of the process or business won't work," (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).

 

    However, this was also the first time that the government really regulated the economy.  Before the 1940’s, the government had a very laissez-faire approach, but because of the shortages brought on by the war, the government had to regulate the economy to make sure everyone got what was necessary.  Roosevelt created many wartime committees to oversee  the distribution of goods, and also created a rationing system (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview) (The 1940s Business and the Economy: Chronology).  He created the “War Production Board (WPB), which coordinated war-related industries; the Office of Price Administration (OPA), which set prices on thousands of items to control inflation; and the National War Labor Board (NWLB), which set wages, monitored working conditions, and seized industrial plants in the event of labor strife” (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).

 

    At the end of the war, business had rebounded and was growing faster than ever (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).  Most workers wages had doubled to $50 dollars a week, and farmers’ income had increased 250% (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).  There was almost no unemployment because if you did not have a job, then you could join the army.  Women, African-Americans and teenagers all joined the workforce for their first time during the 1940’s (The 1940s Business and the Economy: Chronology) (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).  The introduction of African Americans caused much violence in many cities, with Detroit having the race riots (The 1940s Business and the Economy: Chronology).   The greatest problem caused by the end of the war was the reintroduction of the armed forces into the peace time economy, which was accomplished through putting many of the veterans through college, spreading out the time that they came back and giving them skills to make them more attractive to employers.  “The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) were [made] to insure America access to colonial markets formerly closed to American trade” (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).  However, many of these institutions did not view favorably the Soviet Union, causing the start of the Cold War.  The Cold War helped the American economy the same way WWII did.  Under the Marshall Plan, the U.S. government proposes to give European countries $17 billion to help reconstruct their economies, again viewing unfavorably the Soviet Union (The 1940s Business and the Economy: Chronology). “The potential military confrontation with the Soviet Union not only cemented American economic ties with Western Europe and increased American trade but also provided a viable rationale for increased military expenditures” (The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview).

 

Education

   

    Education changed greatly over the course of this decade.  Education started out below standards, with most schools extremely poor, and very inefficient (The 1940s: Education: Overview).  Most primary and secondary schools because more modern, with higher level education becoming completely modern.  These changes were brought about because during WWII, millions of people were not taken into the army because they were illiterate, and universities in America were found to not be teaching enough science and foreign language (The 1940s Education: Chronology).  So many people left for the war that there were many jobs that needed filling.  These jobs needed specialized training that needed teaching.  Many two year colleges quickly started offering two year degrees, to help with the necessary training.  The military also started to offer specialized training (The 1940s: Education: Overview).

 

    However, at the time, teaching itself was a very poor career choice.  The pay was extremely low, the teacher did not have to be a good teacher, and the any of the teachers left teaching for more lucrative careers in other industries, especially military and the defense.  The government issued many teaching certificates to help the loss, but this just lowered the education level farther (The 1940s: Education: Overview).  After the war ended, all the teachers banded together and formed unions that demanded better pay, which alarmed the public and fueled the Red Scare of the 1940’s (The 1940s Education: Chronology).  The only way the government could think of to fix the problem was to integrate it into the military into joint ventures.  The GI Bill of Rights sent many of the veterans to college, where they learned what they would need to specialize in peace time.  Religion was ruled as unconstitutional to be taught in public schools, and racial segregation was being fought by the NAACP of the time.  UNESCO was formed to improve education abroad (The 1940s: Education: Overview).

 

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Fashion

 

    In the 1940s, fashion for women was very much like that at the end of the 1930s: “padded square shoulders in suits and dresses that narrowed at the waist and fell straight down to mid calf.” (Baughman) The fabric used to make clothes was put on a limit so that it could b e saved to be used in the war, and new fashion trends were discouraged. “The classic dresses of the 1940s were tailored and elegant in their formfitting lines yet were unadorned by buttons, pockets, or other extras.” (Baughman)  Instead of using these things, which were expensive and unnecessary, women wore interesting and attractive hats; plain, big leather handbags; high heels; and red lipstick.

 

    For men, their fashion was also very conservative and plain. Instead of wearing double-breasted suits, vest, jackets, and slacks, men donned plain two-piece suits that were usually either gray, brown, or black. “Pants had smaller cuffs, shirts had fewer pockets, and jackets were squared with shoulder padding.” (Baughman) Because so many men were joining the war, places that used to make men’s clothes instead made uniforms and there was a huge shortage of regular men’s clothes.

 

 

Film and theater

 

    By 1940, Hollywood was a big deal in America. The largest production studios of the time were “Warner Brothers, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer [MGM], RKO Radio, Twentieth Century Fox, United Artists, Paramount, Universal, and Columbia” and they produced over 90% of the media (Pendergast). At least one movie was made every week. Under the Production Code Association (PCA), companies has limits on what was produced. “The association made sure the good guys always won, sexuality was suggested rather than mentioned openly, and social issues were not debated.” (Pendergast) Nearly 80 million Americans watched these movies each week, so these rules were set in place to protect the viwers. “When regular Americans and those in Hollywood began to wonder what role the United States would play in the war, attitudes about censorship changed. Studios wanted to explore political issues in films, but many feared that ticket sales might be hurt.” (Pendergast) By 1941, Hollywood changed their tune and began to support the war.

 

Food &  Drink

 

Print Culture

 

    World War II (1939–45) was the topic of most newspaper and media until the soilders actually came home. After that, comic strips became a big deal. The Green Lantern and Captain America were superheroes, and there were comics about them, about detectives, and also just about humorous characters.

There were special magazines written just for children “Golden Books offered the youngest children colorful picture books. Highlights magazine offered educational reading entertainment. Seventeen gave advice on teenage life to young women. The Bobbsey Twins and Cherry Ames characters entertained young readers in their series of books.” (Pendergast)

    Because the kids had their own magazines and paperback novels were becoming big to the adults, “the pulp magazines that were dominant in the 1920s and 1930s lost their appeal. The pulps lost writers to book publishers and comic books. Sales of racy, longer stories in paperback proved too damaging to many pulps to continue publication.” (Pendergast)  By the 1950s, there was basically no more pulps left.

 

Sports &  Games

    In the 1940's, many of the sports were greatly affected by the war during the 1940's. 

 

    The war expected most able-bodied men between the ages of 18-26 to enter the military and fight for America, which created a decrease in the number of athletes that were able to play in sports. The war also required many materials normally used in sports, which limited the equipment for sport activities, such as rubber and wood. But sports boosted the morale for the troops over seas and gave a reason for its existence to continue. For this reason, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt sign the Green Light Letter, which supported the sport and made it continue throughout the war. The games of baseball were so important to troop morale overseas that the Japanese went to extreme attempts to keep the broadcasts from reaching the soldiers in Europe and Asia. The Japanese even tried to use jamming equipment on the signals. As a result of the war, many teams recruited older veterans and created the All-American Girls Baseball League.

 

    But after the war, the new technologies including television revolutionized sports. Following the war, African-Americans were joining teams and playing sports professionally. The first African-American athlete was Jackie Robinson in 1947, other than in boxing. In the 5-year span after the war, salaries of athletes were increasing drastically and brought a greater incentive for people to play professional sports. In basketball, the war didn’t really affect the game because many of the athletes were too tall to fit into the requirements to be in the military. But football became much larger and developed into a larger sport.

 

 

Music

    During the 1940’s, music morphed in several key ways that lay the foundation for the emergence of other types of music, namely rock and roll. Blues, for example, transitioned into rhythm and blues (R&B), boogie woogie, and “jump blues.” These more electrified music styles later turned into rock and roll. Both country and folk music were also shifting into sounds more similar to rock and roll as well. One popular country music singer was Roy Acuff. Also during this era, bluegrass developed, a style of music featuring banjos, guitars, and lyrics showcasing the “hard life.” A new kind of jazz emerged, as well, called bebop, allowing for more improvisation. One of the last major changes to music during this era was to background music. Instead of the popular big bands, softer string instruments were beginning to emerge as more prominent accompaniments. Singers in these big bands that could have been affected by this include Billie Holiday, Frank Sinatra, and Bing Crosby. 

 

 

    This song showcases the transition between big band to string instruments. It incorporates elements of a big band (saxaphone, drum set, background singers, and brass) as well as string instruments. Admittedly with a slightly optimistic twist, the song also incorporates lyrics about life’s hardships, ending with “That’s life and I can’t deny it/ [. . .] I’m gonna roll myself up in a big ball and die.”

 

 

 

"The Way We Lived"

 

     The current World War set many restrictions and needs, which influenced all of American and day-to-day life. /the largest cause for change was the military draft of approximately ten million able-bodied men. The war also caused the demand for increased industrialized production in order to supply goods and equipment to soldiers and to society as well. At this point, materials were rationed like steel, rubber, and scarce goods. For this reason, automobiles and trucks were not produce from 1942 until the end of WWII. Also, the government raised taxes, controlled the rationing of goods, and controlled prices. The labor-force was short of ten million able-bodied men but by the end of the war, the workforce expanded from 56,180,000 laborers in 1940 to 65,290,000 laborers in 1945. At the beginning of the decade, a majority of the population lived in poverty. But at the end of the war, only a third of the population was in poverty. Also, this increase in workers brought in a great amount of disposable income for the first time since before the Great Depression.

 

     Because of the war and need for workers, the unemployment rate went from 14 percent to 0. Many women began to get jobs and work for the military in hopes of helping the troops in Europe. Because of the effectiveness of the economy from the workingwomen, the government media realized that women were an important part of the workforce.

 

     However, the depression created tensions within marriages due to economic hardships at the time, which caused a decrease and marriage and birthrates. But by the end of the war the soldiers returned and created a baby boom. This increased the birthrate from 19.1 to 24.1 births per thousand women. The baby boom led to the idea of suburban communities and an idea of settling down and creating a family. After the war, the ideas of the cold war began to inspire fear into families. This caused the spread of suburbia. The reason was to spread out the population and depopulate urban centers in case of nuclear strikes on large cities. With the extra disposable income, a massive post-war buying spree occurred, where over 21.4 million new cars were bought, over 1 million new houses were bought, and millions of new electronic devices were bought.

 

Government & Politics

    At the beginning of the 1940s, Franklin D Roosevelt was president. He had just spent years working on bringing the U.S. out of the Great Depression, and he faced bringing the nation into WWII after promising not to put the country in that position. He faced public views from both sides, from isolationists, who wanted the country to keep to themselves and attend only to our domestic affairs, to interventionists, who wished to become directly involved in the war. Instead, Roosevelt took a more moderate approach as a smooth transition into the war. After he was reelected, he began supplying arms to Britain, and by spring 1941, he was directly engaged with German submarines. By then increasing the amount of arms supplied to Germany’s enemies, Roosevelt nearly insured some form of retaliation. This came in the form of Pearl Harbor, at which time the U.S. officially went to war. 

 

    The war was arguably the main cause to the end of the Great Depression, putting millions to work for the war effort. By the late 1940’s, the U.S. was forced to create the Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the National Security Council to accommodate the increasingly militarily based government. Also, following such a long period of economic instability, corporations agreed to accept subsidies for the poor if the government would insure a profit for companies aiding the war effort. This resulted in placing many businessman into government positions, giving these individuals even more power. At the end of World War II, the United States created a situation that allowed its economy to still flourish but that was structured largely around military business. The implications of this setup did not bode well for maintaining peace. 

 

    The war and economy also changed the structure of political parties. Republicans, in particular, underwent large changes to their own party. Southern conservatives became alienated due to opposition of welfare programs and the African American civil rights movement. Eventually, two branches emerged in the party: those with a laissez-faire attitude and those who encouraged aggressive economic policies, international trade, and took extreme anticommunist views. Many republicans, however, shared isolationist beliefs. 

 

 

Leadership

    Throughout the 1940's, two of the most influential leaders included Franklin Delano Roosevelt, president through 1945, and J. Edgar Hoover, the first director of the FBI. 

 

    In 1940, Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the first president to seek out, and win, reelection for a third time. After the election, Roosevelt began to lead the country into WWII more forcefully, first by supporting the allies and eventually declaring full out war after the attack on Pearl Harbour. As president, Roosevelt played a vital role in transitioning the country into a wartime economy and keeping the public support for the war high. After Roosevelt won yet another presidential election in 1944, the war was drawing to a close. Germany’s defeat seemed imminent, and although Japan’s was further away, the allies knew that the war would be over soon. Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill met at Yalta, in the Crimea. Agreements were formed over territorial acquisition, and Roosevelt used the opportunity to push for the creation of the United Nations to replace the former League of Nations. His attempts were successful, and a preliminary meeting was scheduled for April 25, 1945, thirteen days after Roosevelt died. 

 

    In 1935, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was created with J. Edgar Hoover as its first director. During the 1940’s, the FBI played a large part in counterintelligence during WWII. After the war, however, the agency turned down a more controversial path. Hoover began an anti-communist regime, sanctioning illegal wiretapping and spying on thousands of possible communists. Although Hoover was an innovative leader of the agency, his methods were seriously questioned due to his “infringements of citizens’ civil rights and abuse of [. . .] power” (The Great Depression and World War II 27). 

 

 

 

Law &  Justice

    The 1940’s brought great changes to law and justice in the country.  Many events that would have been unthinkable today happened because they were in the interest of national security.  People lied to get what they wanted (The 1940s: Law and Justice: Overview).  People grew much more interested in spectacular crimes, because of the radio and television.  However, the most important thing to occur in the 1940’s in relation to law and justice was the increased interest in war crimes and genocide (The 1940s Government, Politics, and Law: Chronology).  People understood that war was brutal, but they also understood that one did not target civilians during war.  The people grew very angry when they found out about the Holocaust and called for tribunals to hold war crime trials (The 1940s: Law and Justice: Overview).  These trials showed to the people how the rule of law prevailed.  The 1940’s the United Nations was formed, largely due to the US and its dedication to law and justice (The 1940s Government, Politics, and Law: Chronology).  The outbreak of the Cold War caused justice to be pushed to the side by restrictive acts like the Smith Act, because the government believed it was doing the best for the people.  The Supreme Court also started to interpret more and more laws, paving the way for more introspective interpretation in the following years (The 1940s: Law and Justice: Overview).

 

Religion 

 

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    The churches saw a drastic increase in people filling their seats and worshipping their religion. Thousands of memberships were created during the war due to the fear and terror caused by the massive war of the axis and allies. Before hard times in the war, about 43 percent of America attended church. When the fear was inspired into the public, over 55% of the public attended church. An astounding fact is that the American population spent over 409 Million dollars to help fund the construction of new churches. There was an increase of 300,000 Southern Baptists and 1,000,000 Catholics from 1945-1949.

 

    The reason for the drastic increase in religion was not only the terror brought over the United States by the war at the time, but also the pressure of society in the age of the 1940’s. This was the major reason for religion during the 1940’s.

 

    The largest religion in the U.S. in the 1940’s was Protestantism, which was represented by more than 8 million members and 40,000 churches. The churches began to gain influence and power because of their large profits from the increase in members. Methodists had an annual budget of more than $200 million, which allowed them to operate many colleges, universities, hospitals, and seminaries. Catholicism and Judaism were the main religions for immigrants and had integrated into society. At this time in the war, a vital church in society was the war church, which helped the deliver religion to the soldiers that were fighting the axis. However, this led to the mental and emotional struggles of thousands due to the grievances and deaths that they had witnessed in Europe, which led to a lack of faith for some soldiers.

 

 

 

 

Positive Political Cartoon

    This political cartoon portrays Roosevelt as a strong and optimistic president. Although he faces huge debt and an enormous stack of other problems, Roosevelt faces them all with an upturned face, a sign of hope and optimism. He carries a sword, more than ready to face his unarmed opposition. 

 

 

Negative Political Cartoon

 

    This cartoon was created by Theodor Seuss Geisel, or Dr. Seuss, in 1941. It depicts the U.S. as naive, twiddling its thumbs as Nazi Germany attacks yet another country. Dr. Seuss takes the position that the United States should enter into the war immediately, because whether the U.S. believes it or not, the war will soon come to them. The sooner they attack, the more support they will have. Also, Dr. Seuss shows the indifference of the United States to the suffering of other nations. 

 

 

 

 MYP Unit Question: How did culture, events and leadership shape and reflect post-WWII America? 

   Culture played a large part during the 1940's.  Because America's culture was largely isolationist prior to the war, it delayed our entrance into the war, weakening our allies so that when we won we would be the dominant country.  It also allowed us to go into it completely because our culture supported the defense of people's rights.  Because of the Great Depression, many people thought that there was something wrong with America's overall culture, so they did not fight as much when the government created all the economic regulations because of the war.  The culture did not fight them because they were fine with being regulated if it brought them out of the Great Depression.   The culture also emphasized patriotism, making entrance into the war easier, and giving the soldiers the determination to win the war.  It also allowed for the government to have more power than it used to have because most people felt that the government could do no wrong.

    World War II and the expansion of technology largely impacted the 1940’s. When the United States went to war, the whole nation was completely transfigured. The threat of a dictator, and afterwards, the communist Soviet Union, caused a huge fear of communism and anything related to it. The absence of the soldiers overseas triggered an influx of women to the workplace, changing women’s roles in a way similar to WWI. Rationing and wartime efforts were apparent in every home. Also, the further development of technology, including color TV’s and the expansion of transportation allowed for even more rapidly spread information. With more of the population informed, threats from outside of the nation impacted a greater fraction of Americans.

    Government leadership had a large effect on the 1940’s. Our president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, was an especially prominent figure. Roosevelt led the country into World War II. Without his leadership, we may never have entered into the war at all and therefore not allowing the economy to improve. Even if the United States had entered the war under a different president, the outcome would have had the potential to be drastically different, not only shaping the rest of the decade, but the entire future of the country. Also, after WWII, Roosevelt advocated the creation of the United Nations. Without his guidance and support, the League of Nations may never have undergone the transformation that changed the world.

     Post-WWII America was greatly shaped by the way of life that society went through during the war. This caused the great Baby Boom as well as the large increase in disposable income throughout American citizens. Also, the war caused a need for workingwomen, which made the government and American media accept and welcome women in the workplace. The Baby Boom also led to an increase of Americans and a need for more houses and goods, which made the economy boom after the war. The war also created a need for religion, which brought a reawakening of religion to Americans. Also, the need for sports during the war brought a boom to popularity of professional sports, which we can see today.

 

 

 

Works Cited

 

"Baseball." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2010.

 

Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Eds. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 3: 1940s-1950s. Detroit: U*X*L, 2002. Print.

 

"Europe Divided on Familiar Lines To Two Speeches." Prescott Evening Courier 54(1948): 6. Print.

Gale Research Inc. "The 1940s: Religion: Overview." Novelguide: Free Study Guides, Free Book Summaries, Free Book Notes, & More. Novel Guide, 1995. Web. 08 Jun 2010

Geisel, Theodor. Ho hum. 1941. A Catalog of Political Cartoons by Dr. Seuss. Archives.  Web. 5 June 2010.

 

Goodwin, Sue. "American History - Decade 1940 - 1949." American Cultural History. Ed. Peggy Whitley. Lone Star College-Kingwood, 9 Jul 1999. Web. 08 Jun 2010.

"Hoover, J. Edgar." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 500-501. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5 June 2010.

 

Horn, Margo. "The 1940s: Lifestyles and Social Trends." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2010.

"Roosevelt, Franklin Delano." West's Encyclopedia of American Law. Ed. Shirelle Phelps and Jeffrey Lehman. 2nd ed. Vol. 8. Detroit: Gale, 2005. 393-397. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5 June 2010.

"The Great Depression and World War II (1929–1945)." Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. History: Government and Politics. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2008. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5 June 2010.

 

"The 1940s Business and the Economy: Chronology." UXL American Decades. Ed. Julie L. Carnagie, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: UXL, 2003. 24-25. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 May 2010. 

 

"The 1940s: Business and the Economy: Overview." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 May 2010. 

 

"The 1940s Education: Chronology." UXL American Decades. Ed. Julie L. Carnagie, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: UXL, 2003. 44-45. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 May 2010.

 

"The 1940s: Education: Overview." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 May 2010.

 

"The 1940s: Fashion: Overview." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 June 2010.

 

"1940s: Film and Theater." Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 3: 1940s-1950s. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 529-530. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 June 2010.

 

"1940s: Food and Drink." Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 3: 1940s-1950s. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 529-530. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 June 2010.

"The 1940s Government, Politics, and Law: Chronology." UXL American Decades. Ed. Julie L. Carnagie, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: UXL, 2003. 64-65. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 May 2010.

"The 1940s: Government and Politics: Overview." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 3 June 2010.

 

"The 1940s: Law and Justice: Overview." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 May 2010.

"The 1940s: Lifestyles and Social Trends: Overview." American Decades. Ed. Judith S. Baughman, et al. Vol. 5: 1940-1949. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2010.

"1940s: Music." Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 3: 1940s-1950s. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 553-554. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 26 May 2010.

 

"1940s: Print Culture." Bowling, Beatniks, and Bell-Bottoms: Pop Culture of 20th-Century America. Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 3: 1940s-1950s. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 529-530. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 8 June 2010.

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